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1.
Abstract We investigated the attention demands associated with implicit and explicit (motor) learning and performance using a probe reaction time paradigm. Two groups of participants learned a golf putting task over eight blocks of 50 trials performed from different distances. One group (errorless learning) began putting from the shortest distance (25 cm) and moved progressively back to the furthest distance (200 cm). A second group (errorful learning) began putting from the furthest distance (200 cm) and moved progressively closer (25 cm). Retention tests were used to assess learning in the two conditions, followed by transfer tests in which participants used either an unusual putter or a very unusual putter. Transfer to the unusual putters had an equivalent effect on the performance of both errorless and errorful learners, but probe reaction times were unaffected in the errorless learners, suggesting that execution of their movements was associated with reduced attention demands. Reducing errors during initial learning trials may encourage an implicit mode of learning and lower the demand for cognitive resources in subsequent performance. 相似文献
2.
The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9–12 years (M?=?9.74, SD?=?0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n?=?13), Errorless Low-Ability (n?=?11), Errorful High-Ability (n?=?10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n?=?11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities. 相似文献
3.
The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning. Participants practised a complex motor skill - golf putting - for 3000 trials, either with a concurrent secondary, tone-counting task (implicit learning) or without such a task (explicit learning). The cognitive demands of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task. The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocols. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase. However, no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test. Additionally, for the participants in the explicit group only, a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase. We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition, which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions. 相似文献
4.
The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning. Participants practised a complex motor skill--golf putting--for 3000 trials, either with a concurrent secondary, tone-counting task (implicit learning) or without such a task (explicit learning). The cognitive demands of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task. The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocols. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase. However, no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test. Additionally, for the participants in the explicit group only, a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase. We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition, which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions. 相似文献
5.
Abstract This study is a preliminary investigation into the use of cluster analysis to determine if different putting techniques existed in a group of club level golfers. Putting at a hole 4?m away, the performances of 34 experienced golfers (age 55.3?±?17.8 years and handicap 15.3?±?6.9, range 3–27) were analysed using putter head kinematic and centre of pressure data. Two distinct putting techniques were identified (named as Arm putting and Body putting), this being the first time different putting techniques have been reported in the research literature. These techniques were defined by parameters related solely to movement of the centre of pressure along the line of the putt. Some players (17 of 34) moved between techniques when performing their putting trials. Neither technique produced more accurate putt results (P?=?0.783). Putting technique was further analysed after grouping players according to handicap (similar skill level) or accuracy (similar putting performance). The lack of significant findings when players were re-analysed according to handicap or accuracy highlights the importance of the correct methodological approach to detecting technique differences. 相似文献
6.
The purpose of this study was to construct and evaluate the reliability of an apparatus for testing golf putters with respect to distance and direction deviation at different impact points on the clubface. An apparatus was constructed based on the pendulum principle that allowed putter golf clubs to swing at different speeds. The mean speed of the club head before ball impact, and of the ball after impact, was calculated from time measurements with photocells. A pin profile rig was used to determine the directional deviation of the golf ball. Three different putters were used in the study, two that are commercially available (toe-heel weighted and mallet types) and one specially made (wing-type) putter. The points of impact were the sweet spot (as indicated by the manufacturer's aim line), and 1, 2 and 3 cm to the left and right of the sweet spot. Calculation of club head speed before impact, and of ball speed after impact (proportional to distance), showed errors < or = 0.5% of interval duration. The variability in ball impacts was tested by measuring time and direction deviations during 50 impacts on the same ball. The mean duration (+/- s) after ball impact in the test interval (1.16 m long) was 206 (0.8) ms and the standard deviation in the perpendicular spreading of the balls in relation to the direction of the test interval was 0.005 m. A test-retest of one putter on two consecutive days after remounting of the putter on the test apparatus showed less than 1% difference in distance deviation. We conclude that the test apparatus enables a precise recording of distance and direction deviation in golf putters as well as comparisons between different putters. The apparatus and set-up can be used in the laboratory as well as outdoors on the putting green. 相似文献
7.
We conducted two experiments to assess the effect attentional focus has on learning a complex motor skill and subsequent performance under secondary task loading. Participants in Experiment 1 learnt a golf putting task (300 practice trials) with a single instruction to either focus on their hands (internal focus) or the movement of the putter (external focus). No group differences were evident during learning or retention. Differences between the groups were only apparent under secondary task load; the external group's performance remained robust, while the internal group suffered a drop in performance. Verbal protocols demonstrated that the internal group accumulated significantly more internal knowledge and more task-relevant knowledge in general than the external group. Experiment 2 was designed to establish whether greater internal focus knowledge or greater explicit rule build up in general was responsible for performance breakdown. Two groups were presented with a set of six internal or external rules. Again, no performance differences were found during learning or retention. During the secondary task, both groups experienced performance deterioration. It was concluded that accumulation of explicit rules to guide performance was responsible for the internal group's breakdown in performance under secondary task loading and may be responsible for some of the performance differences reported previously. 相似文献
8.
The purpose was to evaluate the traditional method, of visually focusing on the ball, in comparison to focusing on the hole, during the putting stroke. The study design consisted of a pretest, a 4-week practice period, and a posttest. Participants (n = 31, handicap: 18.7 ± 10.4) practised using only one of the two gaze techniques. Testing consisted of having all participants putt using both gaze techniques from both a 1.22 m and a 4 m distance. Five putts were executed for each gaze technique/putt length combination for a total of 20 putts in each testing session per participant. The kinematics of every putting stroke executed during testing (1240 strokes) were captured using a TOMI? system. There was a significant improvement in putting success for both groups following practice (P = 0.001). Practising while visually focusing on the hole, resulted in a statistically significant reduction in putter speed variability in comparison to practising while visually focusing on the ball (P = 0.017). Visually focusing on the hole did not meaningfully (nor statistically) affect the quality of impact as assessed by the variability in face angle, stroke path, and impact spot at the precise moment the putter head contacted the ball. 相似文献
9.
Johnny Nilsson 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(2):143-147
Abstract The purpose of this study was to construct and evaluate the reliability of an apparatus for testing golf putters with respect to distance and direction deviation at different impact points on the clubface. An apparatus was constructed based on the pendulum principle that allowed putter golf clubs to swing at different speeds. The mean speed of the club head before ball impact, and of the ball after impact, was calculated from time measurements with photocells. A pin profile rig was used to determine the directional deviation of the golf ball. Three different putters were used in the study, two that are commercially available (toe-heel weighted and mallet types) and one specially made (wing-type) putter. The points of impact were the sweet spot (as indicated by the manufacturer's aim line), and 1, 2 and 3 cm to the left and right of the sweet spot. Calculation of club head speed before impact, and of ball speed after impact (proportional to distance), showed errors ≤ 0.5% of interval duration. The variability in ball impacts was tested by measuring time and direction deviations during 50 impacts on the same ball. The mean duration (± s) after ball impact in the test interval (1.16 m long) was 206 (0.8) ms and the standard deviation in the perpendicular spreading of the balls in relation to the direction of the test interval was 0.005 m. A test – retest of one putter on two consecutive days after remounting of the putter on the test apparatus showed less than 1% difference in distance deviation. We conclude that the test apparatus enables a precise recording of distance and direction deviation in golf putters as well as comparisons between different putters. The apparatus and set-up can be used in the laboratory as well as outdoors on the putting green. 相似文献
10.
Ashley K. Richardson Andrew C. S. Mitchell Gerwyn Hughes 《Journal of sports sciences》2017,35(3):224-230
This study aimed to examine the effect of the impact point on the golf ball on the horizontal launch angle and side spin during putting with a mechanical putting arm and human participants. Putts of 3.2 m were completed with a mechanical putting arm (four putter-ball combinations, total of 160 trials) and human participants (two putter-ball combinations, total of 337 trials). The centre of the dimple pattern (centroid) was located and the following variables were measured: distance and angle of the impact point from the centroid and surface area of the impact zone. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to identify whether impact variables had significant associations with ball roll variables, horizontal launch angle and side spin. Significant associations were identified between impact variables and horizontal launch angle with the mechanical putting arm but this was not replicated with human participants. The variability caused by “dimple error” was minimal with the mechanical putting arm and not evident with human participants. Differences between the mechanical putting arm and human participants may be due to the way impulse is imparted on the ball. Therefore it is concluded that variability of impact point on the golf ball has a minimal effect on putting performance. 相似文献
11.
Abstract We conducted two experiments to assess the effect attentional focus has on learning a complex motor skill and subsequent performance under secondary task loading. Participants in Experiment 1 learnt a golf putting task (300 practice trials) with a single instruction to either focus on their hands (internal focus) or the movement of the putter (external focus). No group differences were evident during learning or retention. Differences between the groups were only apparent under secondary task load; the external group's performance remained robust, while the internal group suffered a drop in performance. Verbal protocols demonstrated that the internal group accumulated significantly more internal knowledge and more task-relevant knowledge in general than the external group. Experiment 2 was designed to establish whether greater internal focus knowledge or greater explicit rule build up in general was responsible for performance breakdown. Two groups were presented with a set of six internal or external rules. Again, no performance differences were found during learning or retention. During the secondary task, both groups experienced performance deterioration. It was concluded that accumulation of explicit rules to guide performance was responsible for the internal group's breakdown in performance under secondary task loading and may be responsible for some of the performance differences reported previously. 相似文献
12.
Sasho J. Mackenzie Scott M. Foley Andrew P. Adamczyk 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(12):1243-1251
Abstract The purpose was to evaluate the traditional method, of visually focusing on the ball, in comparison to focusing on the hole, during the putting stroke. The study design consisted of a pretest, a 4-week practice period, and a posttest. Participants (n = 31, handicap: 18.7 ± 10.4) practised using only one of the two gaze techniques. Testing consisted of having all participants putt using both gaze techniques from both a 1.22 m and a 4 m distance. Five putts were executed for each gaze technique/putt length combination for a total of 20 putts in each testing session per participant. The kinematics of every putting stroke executed during testing (1240 strokes) were captured using a TOMI® system. There was a significant improvement in putting success for both groups following practice (P = 0.001). Practising while visually focusing on the hole, resulted in a statistically significant reduction in putter speed variability in comparison to practising while visually focusing on the ball (P = 0.017). Visually focusing on the hole did not meaningfully (nor statistically) affect the quality of impact as assessed by the variability in face angle, stroke path, and impact spot at the precise moment the putter head contacted the ball. 相似文献
13.
双任务中内隐运动技能学习对提高保持成绩的作用 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
本实验研究的目的是,调查在双任务条件下一个运动系列能否被不觉察地掌握,内隐学习是否比外显学习更有效地增加保持.36名实验对象被随机分为内隐学习组或外显学习组.要求所有被试通过敲击一个键盘上的F和J键,来移动计算机屏幕上的横杆,去接住一个下落的小球.一个固定的5种小球下落曲线的系列被安插在每组15次练习的中段.同时,实验参加者需要数每组练习中的所听到的嘟嘟声的数目,以作为第二项任务.在掌握该技能后的24小时进行3次保持测验.ANOVA分析发现固定小球下落曲线段的接球成绩随着练习的增加而提高,但是练习对随机段没有作用.尽管两种练习条件下,运动技能学习成绩没有差异,但内隐学习组比外显学习组在模拟接球的保持测试和第二项任务中表现较准确.这些结果显示内隐学习是一个改善运动技能长期记忆的有效手段,并且与外显学习相比,它在练习中占用较少的认知资源. 相似文献
14.
Keogh JW Hume PA 《Sports biomechanics / International Society of Biomechanics in Sports》2012,11(2):288-309
The aim of this review was to determine how the findings of biomechanics and motor control/learning research may be used to improve golf performance. To be eligible, the biomechanics and motor learning studies had to use direct (ball displacement and shot accuracy) or indirect (clubhead velocity and clubface angle) golf performance outcome measures. Biomechanical studies suggested that reducing the radius path of the hands during the downswing, increasing wrist torque and/or range of motion, delaying wrist motion to late in the downswing, increasing downswing amplitude, improving sequential acceleration of body parts, improving weight transfer, and utilising X-factor stretch and physical conditioning programmes can improve clubhead velocity. Motor learning studies suggested that golf performance improved more when golfers focused on swing outcome or clubhead movement rather than specific body movements. A distributed practice approach involving multiple sessions per week of blocked, errorless practice may be best for improving putting accuracy of novice golfers, although variable practice may be better for skilled golfers. Video, verbal, or a combination of video and verbal feedback can increase mid-short iron distance in novice to mid-handicap (hcp) golfers. Coaches should not only continue to critique swing technique but also consider how the focus, structure, and types of feedback for practice may alter learning for different groups of golfers. 相似文献
15.
This paper examines whether self-controlled feedback schedules enhance learning, because they are more tailored to the performers' needs than externally controlled feedback schedules. Participants practiced a sequential timing task. One group of learners (self-control) was provided with feedback whenever they requested it, whereas another group (yoked) had no influence on the feedback schedule. The self-control group showed learning benefits on a delayed transfer test. Questionnaire results revealed that self-control learners asked for feedback primarily after good trials and yoked learners preferred to receive feedback after good trials. Analyses demonstrated that errors were lower on feedback than no-feedback trials for the self-control group but not for the yoked group. Thus, self-control participants appeared to use a strategy for requesting feedback. This might explain learning advantages of self-controlled practice. 相似文献
16.
Abstract To better understand the contextual interference effect, in two experiments we investigated a form of practice schedule that provided novices with systematic increases in contextual interference. This new type of practice schedule was compared with traditional blocked and random scheduling for two types of sports skills. In Experiment 1, we tested the hypothesis that practising variations of the same task with systematic increases in contextual interference would lead to superior performance compared with blocked or random scheduling. Participants practised golf putting tasks following a blocked, random or increasing schedule, which involved initial blocked trials, followed by serial practice trials, and ended with random scheduling. Participants who followed the increasing schedule had superior retention test performance. In Experiment 2, we tested if these learning benefits were observed when learning tasks controlled by different generalized motor programs. Participants practised three different basketball passes (chest, overhead, single arm) in a blocked, random or increasing schedule. Participants practising with gradual increases in contextual interference performed better on retention and transfer tests than participants practising with blocked or random scheduling. The results of these two experiments indicate that a practice schedule offering systematic increases in contextual interference facilitates skill learning. 相似文献
17.
《Journal of sports sciences》2012,30(1):94-99
ABSTRACTPrevious research has demonstrated that providing learners with self-control over some aspect of practice enhances motor learning (for a review see Wulf, 2007). One explanation for the self-control effect is that learners engage in deeper information processing when they are allowed to make choices during practice. Recent research has supported this line of thinking by showing that the self-control effect was eliminated for learners who engaged in a cognitive load task during the interval following completion of discrete task trials (Carter & Ste-Marie, 2017). The current study tested the effects of imposing a cognitive load task during the completion of continuous task trials. Participants (N = 48) were divided into self-control (SC), self-control with load (SCL), and two corresponding yoked (YK, YKL) groups. Participants learned a continuous tracing task and then performed 24-hour retention and transfer tests. Retention and transfer test movement times were significantly faster for SC compared to YK participants within the No Load condition but did not differ between these participants within the Load condition. Errors were similar among all groups in retention and transfer. These results provide support for the importance of information processing in regards to the self-controlled learning benefit. 相似文献
18.
Badami R VaezMousavi M Wulf G Namazizadeh M 《Research quarterly for exercise and sport》2012,83(2):196-203
One purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-confidence or anxiety would be differentially affected byfeedback from more accurate rather than less accurate trials. The second purpose was to determine whether arousal variations (activation) would predict performance. On day 1, participants performed a golf putting task under one of two conditions: one group received feedback on the most accurate trials, whereas another group received feedback on the least accurate trials. On day 2, participants completed an anxiety questionnaire and performed a retention test. Shin conductance level, as a measure of arousal, was determined. The results indicated that feedback about more accurate trials resulted in more effective learning as well as increased self-confidence. Also, activation was a predictor of performance. 相似文献
19.
Abstract This paper examines whether self-controlled feedback schedules enhance learning, because they are more tailored to the performers' needs than externally controlled feedback schedules. Participants practiced a sequential timing task. One group of learners (self-control) was provided with feedback whenever they requested it, whereas another group (yoked) had no influence on the feedback schedule. The self-control group showed learning benefits on a delayed transfer test. Questionnaire results revealed that self-control learners asked for feedback primarily after good trials andyoked learners preferred to receive feedback after good trials. Analyses demonstrated that errors were lower on feedback than no-feedback trials for the self-control group but not for the yoked group. Thus, self-control participants appeared to use a strategy for requesting feedback. This might explain learning advantages of self-controlled practice. 相似文献
20.
推杆是高尔夫项目运动技能的重要组成部分,在比赛中对比赛成绩有显著影响,也是高尔夫心理学研究的热点主题。研究对国外高尔夫推杆心理的研究进行总结,分析了学习（练习）方式、认知加工策略、专项感知能力、注意等因素对高尔夫推杆的影响,以及运动动机、竞赛焦虑、注意、生理状态、静眼和"Yips"与竞赛中推杆表现的关系;提出了注意力训练、表象训练、节奏反馈策略和辅助策略训练等高尔夫推杆心理训练的方法。在此基础上总结了当前研究的局限并指出今后研究的方向。 相似文献