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1.
Edson M. Huziwara Saulo M. Velasco Gerson Y. Tomanari Deisy G. de Souza Armando D. Machado 《Learning & behavior》2013,41(2):192-204
In two experiments, we investigated emergent conditional relations in pigeons using a symbolic matching-to-sample task with temporal stimuli as the samples and hues as the comparisons. Both experiments comprised three phases. In Phase I, pigeons learned to choose a red keylight (R) but not a green keylight (G) after a 1-s signal. They also learned to choose G but not R after a 4-s signal. In Phase II, correct responding consisted of choosing a blue keylight (B) after a 4-s signal and a yellow keylight (Y) after a 16-s signal. Comparisons G and B were both related to the same 4-s sample, whereas comparisons R and Y had no common sample. In Phase III, R and G were presented as samples, and B and Y were presented as the comparisons. The choice of B was correct following G, and the choice of Y was correct following R. If a relation between comparisons that shared a common sample were to emerge, then responding to B given G would be more likely than responding to Y given R. The results were generally consistent with this prediction, suggesting, for the first time in pigeons, the emergence of novel relations that involve temporal stimuli as nodal samples. 相似文献
2.
Pigeons were trained using a symbolic delayed matching-to-sample procedure involving bright versus dim houselight samples.
We hypothesized that when sample stimuli differ in salience, increasing the size of the retention interval will affect performance
on trials initiated by the more salient sample only. In agreement with this prediction, accuracy following the dim sample
did not decline as the retention interval increased, whereas accuracy following the bright sample declined to well below 50%
correct. In a second experiment, the less salient (dim) sample from Experiment 1 was arranged as the more salient sample in
a sample/no-sample procedure. Accuracy on dim sample trials then declined to well below 50% correct as the retention interval
increased, whereas accuracy on no-sample trials remained constant. The results suggest that when sample stimuli differ in
salience, pigeons may transform the nominal discrimination task into a detection task in which they respond on the basis of
the presence or absence of the more salient sample. 相似文献
3.
Transfer-of-control tests typically show the development of acquired equivalence between samples occasioning the same comparison choice in pigeons’ many-to-one matching-to-sample. Specifically, when some of those samples are later explicitly trained to occasion new comparison choices, the remaining samples immediately exert control over the new choices as well. In the present experiments, we examined whether or not this transfer effect depends on the order in which the various sample-comparison relations in training are learned. One group of pigeons initially acquired 0-delay many-to-one matching with four samples and two comparisons, followed by 0-delay matching with two of those samples and two new comparisons. Another group of pigeons learned the two-sample matching task first, followed by many-to-one matching. When subsequently tested for their ability to match the remaining samples from many-to-one matching to the comparisons used in the two-sample task, both groups showed comparable levels of transfer. These findings challenge the view that common anticipatory processes ostensibly arising from the samples in many-to-one matching are necessary mediators for the subsequent transfer effects indicative of acquired sample equivalence. 相似文献
4.
The effects of within-session variations in the intertriai interval (ITI) and delay on pigeons’ memory for event duration were studied in delayed symbolic matching-to-sample tasks. Pigeons were trained to peck one color following a long (8 sec) sample and another color following a short (2 sec) sample. In the first three experiments, the baseline conditions included a 10-sec delay (retention interval) and a 45-sec ITI. During testing, the delay was varied from 0 to 20 sec, and the ITI that preceded the trial was varied from 5 to 90 sec. When the ITI and delay were manipulated separately (Experiments 1 and 2), the pigeons displayed a choose-short tendency when the delay was longer than 10 sec or when the ITI was longer than 45 sec, and a choose-long tendency when either the delay or the ITI was shorter than these baseline values. These effects occurred whether the sample was food access or light. When the ITI and delay were manipulated together, the pigeons showed a large choose-long error tendency when the short delay was tested together with a short ITI, and no systematic error tendency when the short delay was tested together with a longer ITI. A very large choose-short error tendency emerged on trials with a long delay and a long ITI; a reduced choose-short tendency was present when the long delay was presented together with a short ITI. In Experiment 4, the baseline conditions were a 0-sec delay and a 45-sec ITI. In this case variations in the ITI had a smaller and unidirectional effect: the pigeons showed a choose-long error tendency when the ITI was decreased, but no effect of ITI increases. Two hypotheses were proposed and discussed: (1) that pigeons judge sample durations relative to a background time composed of the ITI and delay, and (2) that the delay and ITI effects might arise from a combination of subjective shortening and proactive effects of samples from previous trials. 相似文献
5.
Suzette L. Astley 《Learning & behavior》1987,15(4):368-374
The present experiment is concerned with the nature of the cues that might acquire conditioned reinforcing value, and the ways in which such cues might interact with one another. Red and green colored keylights were differentially paired with food dependent upon the houselight context (A or B) and the trial type (training or choice/forced). The duration of the colored keylights was varied between groups in an attempt to manipulate the effectiveness of the short-term memory of trial-type cues at the trial’s end. The red and green stimuli were of 30 sec duration for Group 30 and of 3 sec duration for Group 3. The results indicated that the choices of the pigeons in Group 30 were influenced by the houselight context present and by the keylight color. The choices of the pigeons in Group 3 seemed to be influenced by the houselight context present, the keylight color, and the memory of trial-type cues. Memory cues for trial antecedents were not overshadowed by presumably more salient external houselight stimuli for the pigeons in Group 3. Two alternative explanations for the results are discussed, and determined to be unlikely based on the results of an earlier experiment. The present results are related to a model of the conditioned reinforcing value of momentary stimuli and of transmission of conditioned reinforcing value. 相似文献
6.
The effect of interference treatments on pigeons’ working memory for event duration was investigated, using a successive matching-to-sample procedure. In three experiments, birds were trained to match different keylight durations (2 or 6 sec) to different comparison colors (red or green) following delays of 0 to 12 sec. The interfering effect of delay-interval illumination and illumination change was assessed in Experiments 1 and 2. It was found that the absolute levels of houselight illumination influenced delayed matching accuracy. Birds trained with houselight illumination showed larger decrements in matching accuracy with increasing delays than did birds trained with darkened delay intervals. In addition, increases in delay-interval illumination relative to baseline produced greater interference with delayed matching accuracy than did decreases in houselight illumination relative to baseline. In Experiment 3, the effect of interpolated instructional cues to remember or forget was examined. As in other directed forgetting experiments employing conventional modality characteristics as the samples to be remembered, it was found that instructional cues to forget, presented during the delay interval, reduced matching accuracy compared to instructional cues to remember. It was concluded that these findings support models of temporal memory that assume temporal information is coded into categorical information onto some nontime dimension over models that assume temporal information is remembered amodally as specific time durations. 相似文献
7.
Sadahiko Nakajima 《Learning & behavior》1994,22(1):34-46
Three pigeons were trained with a Pavlovian serial feature-positive (F-P) discrimination task in a light context, in which the houselight was on, and with a Pavlovian serial feature-negative (F-N) discrimination task in a dark context, in which the houselight was off. Three other pigeons were trained with the F-P task in the dark context and the F-N task in the light context. These two contextual conditions were changed randomly trial by trial. The former birds learned the tasks within 60 sessions, by responding exclusively to the target keylight after the feature tone in the light context and by responding exclusively to the target not preceded by the feature in the dark context. Two of the latter birds required separate training of the F-P and the F-N tasks to acquire the discrimination: responding exclusively to the target after the feature in the dark context and responding exclusively to the target not preceded by the feature in the light context. The third bird, however, failed to learn the discrimination even with separate training. These results indicate that the four-term contingency (the context-feature-target-food relationship) controlled the birds’ behavior in the Pavlovian setting. The insertion of a temporal gap between the feature and the target impaired the F-N discrimination, although it had little effect on the F-P discrimination. 相似文献
8.
In the present experiment, we compared directly pigeons’ short-term memory of temporal and visual stimuli in a delayed matching-to-sample task. The sample stimuli consisted of red and green lights presented for 5 and 30 sec, followed by a retention interval and blue and yellow comparisons. For subjects in the visual group, duration was irrelevant and the color of the sample was the conditional cue. For animals in the temporal group, color was irrelevant and duration of the sample was the conditional stimulus. The results showed that acquisition of the matching task was faster and accuracy was higher in the visual than in the temporal group. More importantly, memory of either sample generally declined at a similar rate when the duration of the retention interval was increased and when the intertrial interval was reduced. Taken together, the results indicate that with 1–8-sec retention intervals, short-term memory for temporal stimuli is similar to that found with color-visual samples. The findings are discussed in terms of retrospective and prospective processing. 相似文献
9.
Performance during simultaneous matching-to-sample was assessed in pigeons presented with element and compound visual samples. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained with a symbolic matching procedure, in which different pairs of colored comparison cues presented on side keys were mapped onto a bright or dim houselight as one pair of sample stimuli and onto vertical and horizontal lines on the center key as a second pair of sample stimuli. They were then tested with houselight-line compound samples. It was found that matching accuracy for lines was significantly diminished with compound samples relative to element samples. Conversely, house-light intensities were matched as well with compound samples as with element samples. In Experiment 2, a similar effect was found with pigeons that had been trained to match only line samples. In Experiment 3, it was discovered that sample duration had no influence on the matching deficit found with lines following compound samples in birds either trained or not trained to match houselight intensities. These results, taken in combination with recent findings from experiments with auditory-visual compounds, suggest a restricted processing account of pigeon processing of simultaneously presented stimuli from different sources. 相似文献
10.
Previous evidence suggests that a disruptive stimulus presented during the delay interval of a delayed matching-to-sample trial increases the rate of forgetting by pigeons. However, disruptive events have generally been presented for a period of time proportional to the delay interval. Thus, the observed increase in forgetting may be the result of greater exposure to these events at longer delays than at shorter ones. This possibility was examined by comparing the effects of houselight illumination for the entire delay, half the delay, or a constant 1.5 sec of each delay on pigeons’ delayed matching-to-sample accuracy. Presenting the houselight for a period of time proportional to each delay (i.e., the entire delay or half the delay) impaired accuracy more at longer delays than at shorter delays. By contrast, when the houselight was illuminated for 1.5 sec, irrespective of delay length, there was a greater impairment in accuracy at shorter delays than at longer delays. Thus, the increased rate of forgetting previously reported in the literature may be the result of unequal application of a disrupting stimulus across delays. 相似文献
11.
When Pavlovian stimuli activate representations of food, do these representations resemble memories of food consumed in the recent past or expectancies of food that is imminent? In Experiments 1A and 1B, this question was addressed by training pigeons on a symbolic matching-to-sample task involving different grains as memory cues or as expectancy cues for correct choices. Autoshaping trials involving these same grains were interspersed among matching-to-sample trials, as were test trials involving the substitution of autoshaping stimuli for cues in the matching-to-sample task. Control over choices transferred to autoshaping stimuli in both experiments, suggesting that associatively activated representations of food resemble both memories and expectancies. In Experiment 2, pigeons were trained on a symbolic matching-to-sample task in which food and no-food memory cues (i.e., the samples) were juxtaposed with no-food and food expectancy cues. Subsequently, autoshaping stimuli, which activated representations of food and no food, were substituted for the samples. Choices by the pigeons indicated that associatively activated representations of food-related events resemble expectancies more closely than they do memories. 相似文献
12.
Wixted (Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 235 – 269, 2004) has argued that forgetting is due to consolidation failure. Previous research with humans and nonhuman animals has reported evidence for consolidation in intermediate or long-term memory (LTM). The present study examines whether consolidation occurs in short-term memory in pigeons. Delayed matching-to-sample accuracy was reduced when retroactive interference (an extraneous task in Experiment 1 or houselight illumination in Experiment 2) was interpolated in the retention interval. Accuracy was not greater, however, when interference occurred at the end of the retention interval, as compared with when it occurred at the beginning. That is, there was no evidence for consolidation in short-term memory for pigeons. We did find, however, the beginning–end effect originally reported by Roberts and Grant (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 4, 219–236, 1978) and the recovery from forgetting reported by White and Brown (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 96, 177–189, 2011). The results are discussed in relation to temporal distinctiveness theory as an alternative to consolidation. 相似文献
13.
Five groups of pigeons were trained in a symbolic choice-matching feast involving short (2-sec) and long (10-sec) durations of houselight as samples. Four groups also received training with a second set of samples: line orientations or 2- and 10-sec presentations of keylight. The type of sample-to-comparison mapping varied across groups. Although only two of the five groups demonstrated a choose-short effect (a tendency to choose the comparison associated with a short sample at longer delays), all groups demonstrated temporal summation (a tendency to respond on the basis of the combined duration of two successively presented samples). Moreover, the magnitude of temporal summation was equivalent in groups that did and did not-demonstrate a choose-short effect. The results suggest that the processes underlying the perception of sample duration remain invariant across different sample-to-comparison mapping arrangements, but that the memory code used to retain temporal information varies. 相似文献
14.
Past evidence that pigeons may adopt a single-code/default strategy to solve duration sample discriminations may be attributable
to the similarity between the intertrial interval (ITI) and the retention interval. The present experiments tested whether
pigeons would adopt a single-code/default strategy when possible ITI-retention-interval ambiguity was eliminated and sample
salience was increased. Previous studies of duration sample discriminations that have purported to show evidence for the use
of a single-code/default coding strategy have used durations of 0, 2, and 10 sec (Zentall, Klein, & Singer, 2004). However,
the results of Experiment 1 suggest that the use of a 0-sec sample may produce an artifact resulting in inadvertent present/absent
sample matching. In Experiment 2, when pigeons were trained with three nonzero duration samples (2, 8, and 32 sec), clear
evidence for the use of a single-code/default strategy was found. 相似文献
15.
Pigeons were trained in a delayed matching task in which the samples were short (2 sec) and long (10 sec) presentations of either a houselight or a keylight. Transfer trials involved short and long presentations of the nontrained signal as the sample. In the intermittent transfer test, infrequent transfer trials were intermixed with more frequent training trials; in the sustained transfer test, all trials were transfer trials. The intermittent test revealed only weak transfer. The sustained test revealed transfer in Session 1 only in birds that had received pairings of the transfer signal and food prior to testing. However, regardless of whether the transfer signal had been previously paired with food, birds exposed to consistent contingencies between duration and choice across training and testing learned the transfer task more rapidly than did birds exposed to inconsistent contingencies. It was concluded that some training in which the transfer signal serves as the sample is required before the durations of a transfer signal are related to the rules associating duration and responding 相似文献
16.
According to the mixed memory model (Penney, Gibbon, & Meck, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26, 1770–1787, 2000), different clock rates for stimuli with different nontemporal properties must be stored within a single reference memory distribution in order to detect a difference between the clock rates of the different signals. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained in a between-subjects design to discriminate empty intervals (bound by two 1-s visual markers) and filled intervals (a continuous visual signal). The intervals were signaled by different visual stimuli, and they required responses to different sets of comparison stimuli. Empty intervals were judged as being longer than filled intervals. The difference between the point of subjective equality (PSE) for the empty intervals and the PSE for the filled intervals increased proportionally as the magnitudes of the anchor duration pairs were increased from 2 and 8 s to 4 and 16 s. In Experiment 2, the pigeons were trained to discriminate intervals signaled by the absence of houselight illumination (Group Empty) or the presence of houselight illumination (Group Filled). The psychophysical timing functions for these intervals were identical to each other. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that memory mixing is not necessary for detecting a timing difference between empty and filled intervals in pigeons. The results of Experiment 2 suggest that the nature of the stimuli that signal the empty and filled intervals impacts how pigeons judge the durations of empty and filled intervals. 相似文献
17.
In three experiments, we examined how matching-to-sample by pigeons is affected by discrimination versus nondifferential training between the matching stimuli. In Experiment 1A, pigeons responding differentially to the sample stimuli off-baseline acquired accurate matching performances more rapidly than did pigeons responding nondifferentially to those same stimuli. In Experiment 1B, tests involving reversal of the off-baseline requirements demonstrated that the birds were primarily controlled in their matching choices by the sample stimuli. The results of Experiment 2 showed that off-baseline nondifferential training did not retard acquisition relative to comparable training between stimuli unrelated to the matching task. Together, these results suggest that discrimination training can facilitate matching acquisition by enhancing attention to the sample stimuli. 相似文献
18.
Douglas S. Grant 《Learning & behavior》1982,10(1):7-14
In two matching-to-sample experiments, pigeons’ performance with samples of stimuli (red and green), number of responses (1 and 20), and reinforcers (food and no food) was assessed. Samples of red, 20 responses, and food were associated with the red comparison stimulus, and samples of green, 1 response, and no food were associated with the green comparison stimulus. On interference trials, three sample types were presented on each trial, and two of the samples (congruent) were associated with the correct comparison and the third sample (incongruent), with the incorrect comparison. Performance on interference trials was compared with that on control trials in which either two (Experiment 1) or three (Experiment 2) congruent samples were presented. It was found that presentation of an incongruent sample reduced matching accuracy markedly, and about equally, whether samples were presented successively or in compound. Although the type of sample that was incongruent was without effect, matching accuracy declined strongly as the recency of the incongruent sample increased. Serial position of the incongruent sample also influenced the shape of the retention function on interference trials. Presentation of the incongruent sample either first or second resulted in accuracy decreasing across the retention interval, whereas presentation of the incongruent sample last in the input sequence resulted in increasing accuracy across the retention interval. The theoretical implications of the findings are considered. 相似文献
19.
Rats were initially trained in a symbolic delayed matching-to-sample task either to discriminate hedonic samples that consisted of food or no food or to discriminate tone samples that differed in frequency and location. The retention functions for both the hedonic and tone samples were asymmetric, with forgetting of the food sample or the high-frequency tone occurring more rapidly than forgetting of the no-food sample or the low-frequency tone. Next, many-to-one (MTO) training was given in which tone samples were added for the rats initially trained with hedonic samples, and hedonic samples were added for the rats initially trained with tone samples. For both groups, a food sample and a tone sample (tone-F) were associated with responding to one lever (e.g., stationary), and a no-food sample and a different tone sample (tone-NF) were associated with responding to the alternative lever (e.g., moving). During retention testing, we found equivalent forgetting for the food and no-food samples, but forgetting of the tone-F sample occurred more rapidly than forgetting of the tone-NF sample. This is the first MTO study to suggest that rats, like pigeons, may use hedonic samples as the basis for the common coding of nonhedonic samples in MTO delayed matching. 相似文献
20.
Four experiments examined transfer of differential outcome performances to new choice responses in pigeons. Experiments 1A and 1B showed that new responses trained off a matching-to-sample baseline readily substituted for the choice alternatives in differential outcome matching, provided that they shared the same outcome associations as the alternatives they replaced. Experiment 2 showed that comparison responses trained on baseline, but in a task in which their different outcomes occurred equally often following each sample (viz., one-to-many matching), substituted for the choices in a standard, differential outcome task. Experiment 3 showed, somewhat surprisingly, that the choices in the latter task were likewise effective substitutes in one-to-many matching. These results pose separate challenges for standard two-process theory and for the bidirectional account of differential outcome performance, and they suggest other cues that pigeons may use to predict outcomes. 相似文献