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1.
2 experiments assessed the effects of prior noncontingent or familiarization experience on subsequent operant conditioning (kick-produced mobile movement) in young infants. In Experiment 1, infants received either long- or short-term noncontingent exposure to their own rotating mobile or simply viewed this mobile for several days while it remained motionless. In Experiment 2, long-term exposure was provided by the same novel mobile used for subsequent training. In both experiments, prior noncontingent experience did not interfere with subsequent conditioning. In Experiment 2, however, simple long-term familiarization with the training mobile precluded "evidence" of learning. The results indicated that infants develop expectancies regarding how stimuli occurring in particular contexts should behave based on their prior experiences with these stimuli. 相似文献
2.
The effects of two types of self-determined reinforcement contingencies on children's test performances were investigated and compared to each other and to externally determined contingencies. In Experiment I, fourth-grade children's test performances were measured for three baseline sessions utilizing self-assessment and self-recording and three contingency sessions. Three contingency conditions resulted in significant and comparable increases in total test performances over a noncontingent reinforcement control: externally determined contingencies set in advance of performance, self-determined contingencies set in advance of performance when children were trained in contingency selection, and self-determined contingent points that children awarded themselves after performance. In a condition in which children self-determined contingencies but had no training in how to set contingencies, the results were not significantly greater than the control. In Experiment II, contingencies were introduced for a longer period of time to two fifth-grade classes. The comparable increases in test performance through externally determined and self-determined contingencies set in advance of performance when children were trained in contingency selection persisted over the three weeks. It was suggested that self-management that includes self-determined contingencies of reinforcement procedures may provide useful and cost effective techniques that educational consultants may recommend for classroom implementation. 相似文献
3.
Ruth M. Colwill 《Learning & behavior》2001,29(2):153-164
The effect of noncontingent outcomes on an instrumental response-outcome (R-O) association was examined in four experiments using transfer tests. In each experiment, rats were first given instrumental discrimination training designed to establish different stimuli as signals (S+s) for different outcomes. Transfer responses were subjected to different treatments across the experiments and then tested with the S+s. In Experiments 1 and 2, two transfer responses were both initially trained with two contingent outcomes. Then, each transfer response was subjected either to the addition of noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes (Experiment 1) or to the replacement of one of the contingent outcomes with noncontingent presentations of that outcome (Experiment 2). Transfer tests revealed no significant difference in the ability of an S+ to promote performance of a transfer response based on their shared association with either the contingent or the noncontingent outcome. These results suggest that a response reinforced with two outcomes remains equally well associated with both of those outcomes despite prolonged exposure to noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes. In Experiments 3 and 4, the possibility that the noncontingent schedules of reinforcement used in Experiments 1 and 2 might be capable of establishing an association between a response and its noncontingent outcome was examined. Transfer responses were trained with one contingent outcome and a different noncontingent outcome. Performance of these transfer responses was augmented more by presentations of an S+ trained with the contingent outcome than with the noncontingent outcome. These results confirm previous reports that instrumental responses are sensitive to outcome contingencies in acquisition and that noncontingent outcome presentations do not weaken previously established R-O associations. Several explanations are considered for the failure of subsequent noncontingent presentations of an outcome to reduce the strength of its association with the instrumental response. 相似文献
4.
Thomas S. Hyde 《Learning & behavior》1976,4(3):293-298
Two experiments explored the effects of Pavlovian (tone-shock) CS+, CS?, and truly random control (TRC) contingencies on two different food-reinforced instrumental baselines. One food-reinforced baseline contained noncontingent shock, while the other did not. In the first experiment, a TRC contingency was shown to produce suppression of food-reinforced responding, while a CS? contingency did not. When noncontingent shock was added to the baseline, however, the TRC stimuli failed to produce suppression, and the CS? contingency increased response rates over baseline level. In a second experiment, the effects of TRC and CS+ contingencies were compared on these same two baselines. While the CS+ produced suppression on both shock and no-shock baselines, the TRC contingency again produced suppression on only the no-shock baseline. 相似文献
5.
Two experiments are reported on the elimination of autoshaped keypecking in pigeons by introducing added feedings that have the effect of removing the contingency between keylight (CS) and feedings. In Experiment 1, added feedings were signaled, by an already conditioned stimulus, in one group but not in another. Contrary to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, but consistent with scalar expectancy theory, responding in these groups declined at equal rates. In Experiment 2, following acquisition, some groups were exposed to repeated sessions in which they received feedings alone prior to receiving both CS and feedings noncontingently. Although prior exposure to feedings did reduce the total amount of responding in subsequent noncontingent sessions, it did not, contrary to scalar expectancy theory, reduce the initial level of responding to the CS. It is suggested that a differential between reinforcing conditions in the CS as compared with neighboring non-CS periods is more fundamental to conditioning than is acknowledged in the Rescorla-Wagner theory or in scalar expectancy theory. 相似文献
6.
Peter E. Jenkins 《Learning & behavior》1981,9(4):501-507
In Experiment 1, pigeons were exposed to a discriminative autoshaping procedure in which one keylight was correlated with negative automaintenance and the other keylight was correlated with positive automaintenance. The negative automaintenance procedure maintained shorter keypeck durations than the positive automaintenance procedure. Keypecking tended to occur in bursts of two, three, or four pecks, and within these bursts keypeck durations reliably decreased. In Experiment 2, keypeck durations and off-keypecks were initially examined during exposure to a positive automaintenance procedure. When a negative keypeck-reinforcer contingency was introduced, keypeck durations decreased and the ratio of off-keypecks to on-keypecks increased. When a positive keypeck-reinforcer contingency was introduced, keypeck durations increased and the ratio of off-keypecks to on-keypecks decreased. These results suggest that keypeck duration is determined by the extent to which the peck is directed at the key. 相似文献
7.
This study investigated whether 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds use their video feedback as a reflection of their current state, even when their feedback was presented with a short temporal delay. In Experiment 1, the effects of 1- and 2-s delayed feedback were examined on an analog of the mark test. In the case of live and 1-s delayed feedback, 3-year-olds passed the test; however, they failed in the case of 2-s delayed feedback. Experiment 2 examined the effect of prior experience of delayed contingency and explorative behavior. The results showed a significant effect of prior experience. These results suggest that detection of visual-proprioceptive contingency contributes to recognition of visual feedback as one's current self. 相似文献
8.
Maes JH 《Learning & behavior》2003,31(4):332-348
In two experiments, the behavioral effects of different response-feedback contingencies were examined with a task requiring
human subjects to repeatedly type three-key sequences on a computer keyboard. In Experiment 1, the subjects first received
positive feedback for response variability, followed by no feedback, or vice versa. In Experiment 2, the subjects first received
positive feedback for response variability, followed by response-independent positive feedback, or vice versa. Response stability
and variability were examined using different measures, such as percentage of trials meeting the variability criteria, frequency
of use of the different response alternatives, and autocorrelations as an index of response randomness. The subjects’ behavior
in the first phase in each condition came to reflect the current feedback contingency. Depending on the measure examined,
responding after each contingency change was characterized by both response stability and decreases or increases in response
variability. The collective results are discussed in the framework of previous animal and human studies on behavioral stability
and variability. 相似文献
9.
William P. Bellingham Katy Gillette-Bellingham E. James Kehoe 《Learning & behavior》1985,13(2):152-164
Discrimination between a tone + light compound and its components in positive and negative patterning schedules was examined. In the positive schedule, reinforced compound presentations (C+) were intermixed with unreinforced component presentations (T?, L?). In the negative schedule, the compound was unreinforced (C?) and the components were reinforced (T+, L+). In Experiment 1, appetitive conditioning of rats’ anticipatory magazine responses was used, and in Experiment 2, aversive conditioning of the rabbit’s nictitating membrane response was used. Both experiments revealed that the positive patterning schedule consistently produced rapid acquisition of appropriate discriminative responding. The results of the negative patterning schedule were more complex. Specifically, the results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that naive rats initially showed rapid acquisition of the negative patterning discrimination. However, schedule reversals revealed that experience with the positive patterning schedule virtually abolished subsequent acquisition of discriminative responding under the negative patterning schedule. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that naive rabbits showed very slow acquisition of discriminative responding under the negative patterning schedule. The results are discussed in relation to the unique-stimulus hypothesis, a contextual encoding hypothesis, and a configural hypothesis. 相似文献
10.
Five groups of pigeons were studied in an auto-shaping procedure which programmed two types of trials represented by hues on the response key. Each signal was separated by a brief intertriai interval. Three groups were studied with a positive correlation between one of the signals and food (contingent groups). They differed with respect to the frequency with which the positive signal appeared. Two noncontingent groups were studied in which the correlation between the signals and food was eliminated by programming food with the same probability following either signal. One noncontingent group had a high density of reinforcement produced by adding reinforcement in the other signal, at the same rate as programmed in the positive signal for the contingent groups. The other noncontingent group experienced the same number of reinforcements in the session as the contingent group with the least frequent positive trial, but these reinforcements were distributed with equal probability across the signals. Birds in the contingent groups with intermediate or infrequent positive signals all acquired reliable pecking, with acquisition most rapid for the infrequent signal. Maintained responding covaried with the speed of acquisition. No birds in the noncontingent groups showed reliable responding. Birds in the contingent group with a frequent positive signal (approximately 3/4 of the session), also showed no reliable pecking. This result suggests that more than one noncontingent group is informative for assessing the role of differential reinforcement probability in the acquisition of auto-shaped keypecking. In particular, a noncontingent group which controls for the frequency of reinforced trials is an appropriate reference group.
相似文献11.
A series of four experiments, employing mice, investigated the generality of the learned helplessness phenomenon. The first two experiments used preexposure to aversive stimuli (shock), while the other two used preexposure to appetitive stimuli (food). In all of the studies, subjects were preexposed to contingent, noncontingent, or no stimuli (except for Experiment 2) in a Skinner box. During the test, animals preexposed to shock were tested with food, and those preexposed to food were tested with shock. The test was conducted in a similar situation, a Skinner box (Experiments 1, 3), or a different situation—a runway (Experiments 2, 4). Performance decrements were evident when subjects that were preexposed to a noncontingent stimulus were compared with subjects preexposed to contingent stimuli. The differences between the contingent and the noncontingent groups were significant, as were the differences between the contingent and the nonpreexposed groups (except for Experiment 1). The effects cut across the different types of stimuli, situations, and response requirements of the preexposure and test phases. 相似文献
12.
We present an algebraic model of resistance to extinction that is consistent with research on resistance to change. The model assumes that response strength is a power function of reinforcer rate and that extinction involves two additive, decremental processes: (1) the termination of the reinforcement contingency and (2) generalization decrement resulting from reinforcer omission. The model was supported by three experiments. In Experiment 1, 4 pigeons were trained on two-component multiple variable-interval (VI) 60-sec, VI 240-sec schedules. In two conditions, resistance to change was tested by terminating the response-reinforcer contingency and presenting response-independent reinforcers at the same rate as in training. In two further conditions, resistance to change was tested by prefeeding and by extinction. In Experiment 2, 6 pigeons were trained on two-component multiple VI 150-sec schedules with 8-sec or 2-sec reinforcers, and resistance to change was tested by terminating the response-reinforcer contingency in three conditions. In two of those conditions, brief delays were interposed between responses and response-independent reinforcers. In both Experiments 1 and 2, response rate was more resistant to change in the richer component, except for extinction in Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, 8 pigeons were trained on multiple VI 30-sec, VI 120-sec schedules. During extinction, half of the presentations of each component were accompanied by a novel stimulus to produce generalization decrement. The extinction data of Experiments 1 and 3 were well described by our model. The value of the exponent relating response strength and reinforcement was similar in all three experiments. 相似文献
13.
In two experiments, we assessed whether rats optimize the number of reinforcers per response. In Experiment 1, one group of rats was trained to leverpress for food reinforcement on a simple variable-interval (VI) 60-sec schedule. For another group, a negative fixed-ratio component was imposed on the VI schedule to produce a conjoint contingency in which reinforcement became available on the VI schedule but was omitted when the ratio criterion was satisfied. In Experiment 2, one group of rats responded on a VI schedule and also received response-independent food. For another group, responding above a certain rate canceled the response-independent food. Despite the negative contingency experienced by the groups in Experiments 1 and 2, responding was maintained at a level at which the number of obtained reinforcers was reduced substantially below the maximum number possible. In addition, in both experiments, the groups that experienced the negative contingency responded at a lower rate than did a yoked control group that experienced the same frequency of reinforcement but lacked the negative component. These results demonstrate that although rats do not optimize their behavior with respect to reinforcement, they are nevertheless sensitive to some aspect of the instrumental contingency in operation. 相似文献
14.
In two experiments, pigeons' responding on an extraneous task was explicitly reinforced during delayed matching-to-sample
trials. In Experiment 1, red or green sample stimuli were followed by retention intervals of 0.2, 1, 4, or 12 sec, during
which pecks to a white center key were reinforced with 2.5-sec access to wheat according to extinction, variable-interval
30-sec, and variable-interval 15-sec schedules in different conditions. A proportion of .2, .5, .7, or .9 of subsequent red
or green choice responses that matched the sample were reinforced with 3-sec access to wheat. The result was that increasing
center key reinforcement, or reducing reinforcer probability, lowered overall accuracy. Initial discriminability fell, but
with no change in the rate of forgetting. In Experiment 2, initial discriminability was affected by extraneous reinforcers
that were contingent on center key pecking, but not by noncontingent reinforcers. A plausible conclusion is that initial discriminability
decreases when reinforcers strengthen competing behaviors. 相似文献
15.
In resurgence, an extinguished instrumental behavior (R1) recovers when a behavior that has replaced it (R2) is also extinguished. The phenomenon may be relevant to understanding relapse that can occur after the termination of “contingency management” treatments, in which an unwanted behavior (e.g., substance abuse) is reduced by reinforcing an alternative behavior. When reinforcement is discontinued, the unwanted behavior might resurge. However, unlike most resurgence experiments, contingency management treatments also introduce a negative contingency, in which reinforcers are not delivered unless the client has abstained from the unwanted behavior. In two experiments with rats, we therefore examined the effects of adding a negative “abstinence” contingency to the resurgence design. During response elimination, R2 was not reinforced unless R1 had not been emitted for a minimum period of time (45, 90, or 135 s). In both experiments, adding such a contingency to simple R1 extinction reduced, but did not eliminate, resurgence. In Experiment 2, we found the same effect in a yoked group that could earn reinforcers for R2 at the same points in time as the negative-contingency group, but without the requirement to abstain from R1. Thus, the negative contingency per se did not contribute to the reduction in resurgence. These results suggest that the contingency reduced resurgence by making reinforcers more difficult to earn and more widely spaced in time. This could have allowed the animal to learn that R1 was extinguished in the “context” of infrequent reinforcement—a context more like that of resurgence testing. The results are thus consistent with a contextual (renewal) account of resurgence. The method might provide a better model of relapse after termination of a contingency management treatment. 相似文献
16.
3 experiments with 3-month-old infants compared the effects of contingent and noncontingent adult-infant social interactions on subsequent infant-controlled habituation and choice tasks. Infants who experienced a prior noncontingent social interaction tended to adopt response strategies that reduced the density of stimulation during these subsequent nonsocial tasks. The results are discussed in terms of their generality and the types of mechanisms that might mediate these transfer effects from social to nonsocial procedures. 相似文献
17.
This study investigated whether seeing iconic gestures depicting verb referents promotes two types of generalization. We taught 3- to 4-year-olds novel locomotion verbs. Children who saw iconic manner gestures during training generalized more verbs to novel events (first-order generalization) than children who saw interactive gestures (Experiment 1, N = 48; Experiment 2, N = 48) and path-tracing gestures (Experiment 3, N = 48). Furthermore, immediately (Experiments 1 and 3) and after 1 week (Experiment 2), the iconic manner gesture group outperformed the control groups in subsequent generalization trials with different novel verbs (second-order generalization), although all groups saw interactive gestures. Thus, seeing iconic gestures that depict verb referents helps children (a) generalize individual verb meanings to novel events and (b) learn more verbs from the same subcategory. 相似文献
18.
Frances K. Mcsweeney James D. Dougan Jennifer Higa Valeri A. Farmer 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(2):173-183
Three experiments examined changes in size of multiple-schedule behavioral contrast with changes in an independent variable. Experiment 1 found that positive contrast generally increased with increases in component duration when pigeons pressed treadles. Experiments 2 and 3 found that positive and negative contrast generally increased with increases in the baseline rates of reinforcement when pigeons pecked keys. The experiments show that positive and negative contrast vary as similar functions of the same variables. Experiment 1 also suggests that these functions are different for different responses. 相似文献
19.
Experiment 1 investigated the effects of US habituation on the acquisition and extinction of learned taste aversions in rats. Subjects receiving five noncontingent LiCl intubations prior to conditioning failed to develop a conditioned taste aversion, while control subjects experiencing a single saccharin/LiCl pairing displayed a pronounced taste aversion which weakened during subsequent poisonings. Experiment 2 examined whether habituation, defined as a waning of responses to repeated presentation of an illness stimulus, was a possible mechanism for explaining the results of Experiment 1. Subjects showed a decrease in motor activity following an initial LiCl intubation, but less attenuation of activity with successive intubations. 相似文献