共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 31 毫秒
1.
Andrew R. Delamater 《Learning & behavior》1995,23(1):31-39
The outcome-selective effects of presenting intertrial unconditioned stimuli (USs) in a rat appetitive conditioning paradigm were examined in two experiments. In both experiments, two stimuli were paired with different outcomes, while one of these outcomes was also presented in the intertrial interval (A+, B*, +). Two measures of learning, stimulus-elicited magazine approach and Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer, were used to examine these effects. The presence of freely occurring outcomes in the intertrial interval (ITI) was observed to interfere more with the learning of a new association (Experiment 1) and to degrade more an already established association (Experiment 2) when the conditioned stimulus had been paired with the same outcome as that occurring in the ITI. An outcome-selective effect of ITI USs distinguishes among accounts of contingency based on general performance, attentional, and motivational mechanisms from those based on more specific associative mechanisms. Overall, the data highlight the importance of specific encoding processes in the analysis of associative learning. 相似文献
2.
两个实验采用联结学习范式,分别探讨知觉类别和语义类别材料中,类别感知对特征学习的影响.结果发现,即使是在联结学习范式中,当学习者感知学习材料存在类别时,不仅关注可以有效预测结果的特征,也会关注类别中的其他特征.同时,在知觉类别和语义类别材科中都发现了相同的结果.本实验结果说明,当学习者感知学习材料中存在类别时,即使是在联结学习范式中,学习者也会像类别学习范式中一样,学习额外特征,支持对存在类别的感知,是影响学习者特征学习的重要原因. 相似文献
3.
Kagan's Matching Familiar Figures Test was used to select 36 impulsive and 36 reflective children at each of three grade levels: kindergarten, second, and fifth. An incidental learning paradigm was used to assess the child's recall of central and incidental information. Reflective subjects recalled more central and incidental information than impulsives, suggesting that impulsives have difficulty encoding information for storage. Central recall increased with grade level but incidental learning remained constant, a finding consistent with the developmental trend found in previous investigations. A task order effect was found in the recall of central information with more errors made when the central recall task was presented after the incidental. This order effect may account for the higher central recall scores found in previous investigations. Other problems with the incidental learning paradigms raise questions about the validity of the task for inferring selective attention. Despite the problems associated with the task, the results offer further evidence to support the notion that impulsive and reflective children differ on dimensions other than response latency. 相似文献
4.
Visual Attention Movements: A Developmental Study 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
The pattern of attention movements underlying reorientation of visual selective attention independent of eye movements was studied developmentally in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, 8-year-old, 11-year-old, and college-age subjects first oriented their attention to a central location and were then cued to direct their attention either to the left or the right peripheral field. Following variable intervals, the target appeared at the cued location and reaction times were recorded. The data were interpretable in terms of the attentional spotlight theory since there was an interaction between distance of the target from fixation and SOA. In terms of this theory, the data indicate that the velocity of attention movements increases throughout the age range studied. Experiment 2, in contradiction to attentional spotlight theory, failed to find evidence of an interaction between distance and SOA. This experiment suggested that young children can covertly orient their attention by including valid, neutral, and invalid cues, and that these cues can both facilitate and inhibit attentional orientation. This experiment also extended the findings to central as well as peripheral cues. 相似文献
5.
Young children often exhibit flexible behaviors relying on different kinds of information in different situations. This flexibility has been traditionally attributed to conceptual knowledge. Reported research demonstrates that flexibility can be acquired implicitly and it does not require conceptual knowledge. In Experiment 1, 4- to 5-year-olds successfully learned different context-predictor contingencies and subsequently flexibly relied on different predictors in different contexts. Experiments 2A and 2B indicated that flexible generalization stems from implicit attentional learning rather than from rule discovery, and Experiment 3 pointed to very limited strategic control over generalization behaviors in 4- to 5-year-olds. These findings indicate that mundane mechanisms grounded in associative and attentional learning may give rise to smart flexible behaviors. 相似文献
6.
How does developing attentional control operate within visual short‐term memory (VSTM)? Seven‐year‐olds, 11‐year‐olds, and adults (total n = 205) were asked to report whether probe items were part of preceding visual arrays. In Experiment 1, central or peripheral cues oriented attention to the location of to‐be‐probed items either prior to encoding or during maintenance. Cues improved memory regardless of their position, but younger children benefited less from cues presented during maintenance, and these benefits related to VSTM span over and above basic memory in uncued trials. In Experiment 2, cues of low validity eliminated benefits, suggesting that even the youngest children use cues voluntarily, rather than automatically. These findings elucidate the close coupling between developing visuospatial attentional control and VSTM. 相似文献
7.
Effects of illustrations on learning authentic textbook materials were studied among 10-year-old elementary school children of high and low intellectual ability. Experiment 1 showed that the presence of illustrations improved learning of illustrated text content, but not that of nonillustrated text content. Comprehension scores were improved by the presence of illustrations for high-ability children, but not for low-ability children. In Experiment 2, children's eye movements were measured during learning of illustrated textbook passages to study how children divide their attention between text and illustrations. The results suggest that learning is heavily driven by the text and that children inspect illustrations only minimally. High-ability students were more strategic in processing in the sense that they spent relatively more time on pertinent segments of text and illustrations. It is concluded that the learning of illustrated science textbook materials involves requirements that may be more readily met by more intellectually capable students. Copyright 1999 Academic Press. 相似文献
8.
This study investigates the effects of methylphenidate (Ritalin) on hyperactive children's performance on a paired-associate learning task under 3 presentation rates (4, 8, and 12 sec per item). The total-time hypothesis states that a fixed amount of time is necessary to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless of the number of trials into which that time is divided. In a double-blind crossover design, the total-time hypothesis was supported by performance in a drug state, but not by performance in a placebo state, where slower presentation rates were not utilized effectively. These results are discussed in terms of inattention in the placebo state and improved attention and use of learning time in the drug state. The methodology presented is suggested as a means of assessing attentional deficits as well as providing a diagnostic procedure for objectively evaluating the appropriateness of stimulant treatment for children referred for symptoms of hyperactivity. 相似文献
9.
In three human causal learning experiments, we examined attentional modulation in the blocking task, in which participants
typically learn little about a novel cue B when it is paired with a previously trained, predictive cue A. Evidence indicates
that this blocking training led to a decrement in attention to the blocked cue B. The present experiments addressed whether
this decrease in attention to the blocked cue could be better explained as being due to lateral inhibition from the pretrained
cue A to the blocked cue B, or as a cue-specific property that is not conditional on the presence or absence of other stimuli.
Strong effects of learned predictiveness were observed on participants’ causal judgments (Experiment 1) and choice behavior
(Experiments 2 and 3). However, no evidence for lateral inhibitory processes emerged in any of the experiments, despite explicit
attempts to maximize experimental sensitivity to this effect. The results are discussed in the context of formal models of
the operation of attentional processes in human and animal learning. 相似文献
10.
Three experiments (total N=140) tested the hypothesis that 5-year-old children's membership in randomly assigned "minimal" groups would be sufficient to induce intergroup bias. Children were randomly assigned to groups and engaged in tasks involving judgments of unfamiliar in-group or out-group children. Despite an absence of information regarding the relative status of groups or any competitive context, in-group preferences were observed on explicit and implicit measures of attitude and resource allocation (Experiment 1), behavioral attribution, and expectations of reciprocity, with preferences persisting when groups were not described via a noun label (Experiment 2). In addition, children systematically distorted incoming information by preferentially encoding positive information about in-group members (Experiment 3). Implications for the developmental origins of intergroup bias are discussed. 相似文献
11.
We examine some implications of an attentional model designed to explain dimensional contrast. Pigeons were trained to discriminate rectangular forms under conditions that produced positive dimensional contrast. In two experiments, the spacing of training stimuli was manipulated in ways that should have changed the allocation of attention. Experiment 1 compared the effect of an increased spacing between negative and positive stimuli with the effect of a decreased overall range of positive stimuli. Both manipulations increased the quality of discrimination performance. Experiment 2 demonstrated that dimensional contrast continued to occur under conditions that minimized the difficulty of the task. Results from these experiments were consistent with quantitative predictions of the attentional model concerning the interaction of discriminability factors and factors related to the allocation of attentional resources. 相似文献
12.
William Timberlake 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(3):276-286
The present experiments explored the relation between a mode of behavior produced by unpredicted presentations of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and subsequent interference with responding to a conditioned stimulus (CS) (the context-blocking effect). The US was food, the CS was a moving ball bearing, and the subjects were rats. The typical response to a moving bearing that predicts food is predatory interaction, and the behaviors that developed under unpredicted US presentations involved focused search and waiting oriented to the food tray. Experiment 1 manipulated the number of unpredicted food presentations and showed that the reduction in subsequent bearing contacts was more clearly related to the occurrence of initial food-tray behavior than to the number of prior food presentations. Experiments 2 and 3 manipulated the conditioning of food-tray behavior while holding constant the number of prior food presentations, and again showed a strong inverse relationship between initial food-tray behavior and ball-bearing contact. The latter experiments also indicated that the locus of interference with bearing-directed behavior was neither primarily central (associative or attentional) nor peripheral (motor interference), but resulted from the incompatibility of two modes of food-getting behavior, a more general predatory search mode versus a mode of focal search and waiting. A behavior-system account of these results does not preclude an associative basis for context-blocking effects, but it argues that such effects may occur at several levels and must function within appetitive structures underlying the animal’s food-getting behavior. 相似文献
13.
Two experiments investigated how signals foster learning from text and diagrams by examining the relationship between visual attention and learning outcomes. In Experiment 1 (N = 55) students learned about the circulatory heart system from a multimedia lesson either with or without signals highlighting text–diagram correspondences. Results showed that students learning with signals attended to signaled (but not to non-signaled) information more frequently and earlier during learning; these changes in visual attention could explain better performance in answering text–diagram-integration questions. Experiment 2 (N = 78) replicated these findings with respect to early attention on signaled diagram elements and learning outcomes; in addition, a third condition was investigated, where signals highlighted diagram elements that did not match the text. Results showed that mismatched signals guided attention only initially, whereas later on students attended more to information that corresponded to the text. Mismatched signals had no effect on learning outcomes. Taken together, the results suggest that signals aid learning by highlighting specific text–diagram correspondences and not by amplifying diagram processing more generally. 相似文献
14.
Two experiments were conducted to investigate developmental changes in children's use of rime-level units of sound-to-spelling correspondence when spelling nonwords under varying task demands. In Experiment 1, nonwords were presented in isolation. Older children spelled more of the nonwords by analogy than younger children. Experiment 2 adopted versions of the clue word technique employed by Goswami (1988a) and found that significantly more analogous, rime-based responses were given to the same stimuli in both younger and older children. However, fewer analogous responses were given when the salience of the clue word was reduced by presentation of multiple target nonwords. The results suggest that while children in the early stages of development possess the ability to use rime-based units in spelling, they do not always make spontaneous use of this analogy strategy. However, when the potential to use rime-based units is highlighted by task demands, as is the case in Experiment 2 when a clue word is provided, even young children make considerable use of analogy in spelling. 相似文献
15.
There's More to the Picture Than Meets the Eye: Young Children's Difficulty Understanding Biased Interpretation 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
5 experiments investigated children's understanding that expectations based on prior experience may influence a person's interpretation of ambiguous visual information. In Experiment 1, 4- and 5-year-olds were asked to infer a puppet's interpretation of a small, ambiguous portion of a line drawing after the puppet had been led to have an erroneous expectation about the drawing's identity. Children of both ages failed to ascribe to the puppet an interpretation consistent with the puppet's expectation. Instead, children attributed complete knowledge of the drawing to the puppet. In Experiment 2, the task was modified to reduce memory demands, but 4- and 5-year-olds continued to overlook the puppet's prior expectations when asked to infer the puppet's interpretation of an ambiguous scene. 6-year-olds responded correctly. In Experiment 3, 4- and 5-year-olds correctly reported that an observer who saw a restricted view would not know what was in the drawing, but children did not realize that the observer's interpretation might be mistaken. Experiments 4 and 5 explored the possibility that children's errors reflect difficulty inhibiting their own knowledge when responding. The results are taken as evidence that understanding of interpretation begins at approximately age 6 years. 相似文献
16.
3 experiments examined the modes of processing used by children and adults in learning family-resemblance categories. The materials were cartoon faces (Experiments 1 and 2) and bugs (Experiment 3) divided into categories that possessed no single defining attributes, but rather several characteristic attributes that were each partially predictive of category membership. The categories were structured so that a holistic mode of processing in which the individual did not selectively weight any given attributes could have led to success. Nevertheless, preschoolers (Experiments 2 and 3), first and third graders (Experiment 1), and adult college students (all experiments) all exhibited primarily analytic modes of learning that consisted of single- and dual-attribute approaches. Although the proportion of analytic learners among the preschoolers was lower than among the adults in Experiment 3, in no case were holistic modes of learning evident. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for young children's apparent relative success in learning natural categories. It is suggested that children's success in learning real-world categories may be based, in part, on an interaction between a basically analytic processing style and natural category structures that provide many partially informative attributes. 相似文献
17.
A closer look at split visual attention in system- and self-paced instruction in multimedia learning
Two experiments examined visual attention distribution in learning from text and pictures. Participants watched a 16-step multimedia instruction on the formation of lightning. In Experiment 1 (N = 90) the instruction was system-paced (fast, medium, slow pace), while it was self-paced in Experiment 2 (N = 31). In both experiments the text modality was varied (written, spoken). During learning, the participants’ eye movements were recorded. Results from both experiments revealed that learners spent more time studying the visualizations with spoken text than those with written text. In written text conditions learners consistently started reading before alternating between text and visualization; moreover, they spent more time reading the text than inspecting the visualizations. While in Experiment 1 additional time that was made available in conditions with a slow or medium instruction pace was spent inspecting visualizations, in Experiment 2 longer learning times resulted from reading the text more intensively. With respect to learning outcomes (retention, transfer, and visual memory) Experiment 1 revealed an effect of text modality for visual memory only. In Experiment 2 no modality effects were found. Instruction pace was hardly related to learning outcomes. Overall, the results confirm prior findings suggesting that the distribution of visual attention in multimedia learning is largely guided by the text. 相似文献
18.
Thorwart and Lachnit (2009) found reliable symmetrical decrements in two generalization tasks: Removing an already trained
component from a compound did not result in larger decrements than adding a new one did. In two contingency learning experiments,
we investigated first whether time pressure during stimulus processing, as well as the degree of perceptual grouping, was
effective in controlling the symmetry of the decrements (Experiment 1); and second, whether the symmetry was affected by the
causal versus predictive nature of the relationship between the cue and the outcome (Experiment 2). The experiments generated
unexpected results, since both revealed asymmetrical decrements independent of the manipulations introduced. They therefore
demonstrate that more research is needed in order to understand the variables influencing stimulus representation in human
associative learning. 相似文献
19.
BackgroundText illustrated by pictures (i.e., multimedia material) is often used to improve learning outcomes. To support learning, it is essential to understand and specify the ongoing cognitive processes when processing illustrated texts.AimsWe focus on three cognitive processes identified when processing non-illustrated texts: activation, integration, and validation. In three experiments, we investigated whether the three processes occur during the processing of illustrated texts and whether the processes differ between illustrated and non-illustrated texts.SamplesExperiment 1 had 170 participants, Experiment 2 had 221 participants, and Experiment 3 had 132 participants.MethodAll experiments used an adapted version of the contradiction paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants read texts that contained information that was consistent vs. inconsistent with a later sentence (target sentence). It was additionally varied whether a picture illustrated the consistent vs. inconsistent information. In Experiment 3, only the pictures were consistent or inconsistent with the target sentence. We measured reading times for the target sentence and the following sentence (spillover sentence).ResultsIn all three experiments, reading times were significantly longer in the inconsistent than in the consistent conditions. This prolongation of reading times was not affected by the picture in Experiments 1 and 2.ConclusionOur results indicate that activation, integration, and validation processes are similar when processing non-illustrated and illustrated texts (Experiments 1 and 2) and also occur when information is presented across text and picture (Experiment 3). We discuss the implications for the theoretical foundations of multimedia learning. 相似文献
20.
Rats collected nuts from a container in a large arena in four experiments testing how learning about a beacon or cue at a
goal interacts with learning about other spatial cues (place learning). Place learning was quick, with little evidence of
competition from the beacon (Experiments 1 and 2). Rats trained to approach a beacon regardless of its location were subsequently
impaired when the well-learned beacon was removed and other spatial cues identified the location of the goal (Experiment 3).
The competition between beacon and place cues reflected learned irrelevance for place cues (Experiment 4). The findings differ
from those of some studies of associative interactions between cue and place learning in other paradigms. 相似文献