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1.
Hermann Lübbe 《Research Policy》1974,3(2):172-180
In the Federal Republic of Germany, as in nearly all countries, science policy is increasingly oriented along the planning of science and research, including the systematic establishment of research priorities, and enquiry into the theoretical and methodological foundations of research planning.The most distinguishing characteristic of science policy in the Federal Republic of Germany, however, is the fact that the influence exerted by industry and the state on the planning of research is conspicuously weak compared to other countries. After a brief characterisation of research policy in Germany the author comes to the conclusion that it is not government R & D expenditure which is strikingly small, but the extent to which the government assumes direct political responsibility for research, and demands the coordination of the fragmented responsibilities in research policy and research planning in the Federal Republic.The steps taken so far in this direction will, however, have far-reaching consequences, in particular, a differentation between research and teaching. Furthermore, the author is doubtful whether the political power of government and parliament in the Federal Republic of Germany will suffice to take full advantage of enlarged competences in research policy. 相似文献
2.
M.L. Gimpl 《Research Policy》1974,3(1):124-131
New Zealand's science policy consists of spending about 0.5% of its G.N.P. on R & D. Of this expenditure 41% is spent on activities relating to agriculture and 9% on activities related to manufacturing. This imbalance in spending between agriculture and manufacturing is not consistent with the goals being placed on manufacturing and the importance of manufacturing in New Zealand's domestic economy. A change in emphasis of an expanded R & D programme coupled with new methods of technology transfer will be necessary for New Zealand to obtain her goals of economic expansion. 相似文献
3.
Tuvia Blumenthal 《Research Policy》1978,7(1):63-87
This paper deals with several aspects of R & D activity in Israel's manufacturing industries on three levels — the economy, industrial branch and the firm. Relative to other industrial countries, Israel is characterized by a high share of R & D expenditure in GNP but a low level of industrial R & D. If we take registered patents as an indicator of R & D output no significant correlation is found between this measure and expenditure on R & D; this may point to a low level of success or to the nature of R & D being directed more to small improvements of existing products and processes than to new inventions. An inter-industry analysis shows that R & D expenditure is positively correlated with average firm size and capital per employee and negatively correlated with concentration ratio. A positive correlation was also found with respect to increase in sales and export per employee but not with the rate of growth of export. Although most R & D is performed by large companies there is no significant correlation between R & D expenditure and firm's size among firms engaged in R & D, nor between R & D expenditure and firm's profitability. Concerning the relationship between domestic R & D and imports of technology a tentative conclusion is that Israel does not derive sufficient benefit from the international stock of knowledge. 相似文献
4.
P. Papon 《Research Policy》1973,2(3):226-245
Scientific research has gradually been included in the French Plans after World War II. The relative dispersion of centres of decisions for matters of science policy has been a strong motivation for all the attempts towards coordination of science policy in France but after 20 years of planning of R & D, it appears that this process of coordination is in fact very weak. Furthermore the financial difficulties for implementing the two last plans for R & D have considerably weakened the credibility of the planning process itself. The question is now: how important now is research planning in the French science policy? 相似文献
5.
Existing economic theories show that continuing innovation, diffusion, and technical and managerial improvement are necessary for economic growth and international competitiveness in the industrially advanced countries. But knowledge of why, where and how governments should intervene in the processes of industrial innovations stems more from trial and error than from systematic empirical information of the nature and extent of the hindrances to economically and socially desirable innovations, and of the effectiveness of alternative government policies to remove them. Nonetheless, past empirical studies do offer some clues.Differences amongst industrial sectors. The sources of new technology vary widely amongst inustrial sectors: in the costs of innovation, in the relative importance of outside suppliers of equipment and materials, of large and small firms, and of full-time R & D departments as compared to part-time innovative activities (sect. 7, 8). Similarly, the conditions for successful innovation vary amongst sectors (sect.6). Thus, government policies designed to influence innovation are likely to act with different intensities in different industries.The management of innovation. Nonetheless, there are some features common to innovation in different industries. Considerable costs beyond R & D are often necessary before the innovations reach commercial use (sect.4). And the following managerial characteristics are in general associated with successful innovation: a deliberate policy of seeking innovations; close and careful attention to customer requirements; good personal communications both within the firm and with outside sources of relevant knowledge; a style of management that is ‘organic’ and ‘participatory’ rather than ‘hierarchical’ and ‘authoritarian’; strong project leadership; and a strong engineering capability (sect. 6).R & D managers are still unable to predict the outcome of R & D projects to a useful degree of accuracy and, in the literature on methods of project selection, very little attention is paid to market uncertainties. Furthermore, a greater use of conventional investment appraisal criteria in deciding on R & D projects may re-inforce the already observed tendency in industry towards short-term, low-risk projects, to the neglect of longer-term, high-risk projects (sect. 5).Governments should therefore examine whether the benefits of policies towards education and management advisory services for innovation might outweigh their costs. They may also have a significant role to play in financing longer-term research that is basic to the development of industrial technology (subsect. 12.5).The nature of market and production demands. The direction of industrial innovation is often very sensitive to market and production demands (sect. 3). This fact, together with the high degree of market uncertainty facing innovating firms (sect. 5), suggest that governments can potentially influence both the pace and the direction of industrial innovation through their influence on the scale of industrial, consumer and public service demands. However, this potential influence will become real only if users of innovations are able to specify the innovations that they need, or to evaluate those that they get. This is generally the case for industrial demand, but not in consumer and public service markets, where fashion, insensitivity to users' needs and lack of technical competence often prevail. Government-funded technological institutes and laboratories are ideally placed to provide such technical competence (sub-sect. 12.3).Economic incentives and rewards for innovation. A whole range of economic factors are said to influence the resources, the incentives and the rewards for innovation: for example, the degree of monopoly or the degree of competition, the patent system, the level of profits, the level of taxation, and the level of demand. The empirical evidence on the effects of most of these factors on industrial innovation is either inconclusive or non-existent. However, in the USA a close relationship has been observed between growth of industry sales and growth of industry-financed R & D activities (sect. 10). The rate of growth of demand is also one of the key factors influencing the rate of diffusion of innovations amongst their potential population of users (sects. 11, 12.2).The government-financed scientific and technological infrastructure. Scientific and technological knowledge from outside of innovating firms is often crucial to the completion of successful innovations, and three UK studies show that a significant proportion of this outside knowledge comes from government-financed technological institutes and laboratories, and from the universities (sect. 3). If the same is true in other countries, it should be an essential feature of any government policy towards industrial innovation to know how effectively government-funded laboratories and universities provide supportive knowledge to industry, and how government laboratories should be organised and financed (subsect. 12.4).Direct government-financing of innovative activities in industry. Governments specifically finance R & D activities in industrial firms, although these expenditures are less than those for general industrial development (sect. 13). These R & D activities in industry are relatively more important in France and UK, than in F.R. Germany and the Netherlands.In the four countries, more than 70% of all civilian government R & D activities related to industry are spent on aircraft, space, nuclear energy and electronics (subsect. 14.4). In all these high technologies, governments attempted in the 1960's to implement ‘policies for innovation’, involving government procurement, industrial mergers and attempts at European co-operation, in addition to the financing of R & D (subsect. 14.5). Government expenditures on civilian R & D related to other industrial sectors are very much smaller in all four countries (subsect 14.4).Where should governments intervene? A, number of attempts have been made to develop a formal framework of criteria to assist governments in deciding where they should intervene in industrial innovation. They all run into the following difficulties: dealing with multiple policy objectives; assessing national costs and benefits; comparing with alternative policies, choosing appropriate policy instruments (sect. 17).How should governments intervene? Very little information is available on the effectiveness of various policy instruments that have been used by governments in order to promote innovation in industry. Although it is often possible to measure the inputs into such policies, the measurement of their outputs (or results) is more difficult. Nonetheless, detailed studies would enable some such measurements to be made, and internationally comparable studies would increase the range of experiences and the number of cases that could be examined (sect. 18).Why should governments intervene? A full appreciation of the nature and scale of hindrances to industrial innovation, on which governments should act to remove, requires direct information on what innovations are (or are not) being introduced by industry, and why they are (or are not) being inyroduced. This information can best be obtained from analyses of the behaviour of industrial firms. They would differ from most existing innovation studies that concentrate on asking how firms must behave in order to make successful innovation, by asking what innovations are attempted, and why firms are stimulated to attempt them (sect. 19). 相似文献
6.
W. Al-Timimi 《Research Policy》1975,4(2):160-171
Throughout the period 1951–1972 the source of over two thirds of the world shipbuilding output has been four industrial countries, namely UK, W. Germany, Sweden and Japan, However, during the same period, the relative share of each of the above-mentioned countries in the world's output has changed. During the 1950's the relative share in the world shipbuilding output of the UK and Swedish industries fell, while that of W. Germany and Japan rose. The 1960's witnessed a further fall in the relative share of the UK and Sweden, a fall in the relative share of W. Germany and a sharper rise than during the earlier decade in the relative share of Japan.The dominant position of Japan vis-à-vis other leading shipbuilding countries has been due primarily to its price competitiveness. Japanese shipbuilding prices were lower than those of the UK by a margin that ranged from 7.5–20%. This article attempts to show that this price advantage is due neither to the lower cost of Japanese factors of production, nor to a greater degree of subsidization for the Japanese shipbuilding industry in comparison with those of the UK, W. Germany and Sweden. The theme of this article is that the competitive position enjoyed by the Japanese shipbuilding industry is accounted for by its greater innovativeness compared with the industries in other leading shipbuilding countries. A series of process innovations introduced in Japan has reduced the building cost as well as the operating cost of Japanese built vessels. These process innovations have affected the various components of shipbuilding technology, such as the general engineering aspects, propulsion system, size and manning. This article shows that the greater innovativeness of the Japanese shipbuilding industry is due to several factors: the favourable effect on R & D expenditure of the average size of firms, good management of R & D efforts, and the involvement of management in the production technology side of the business. 相似文献
7.
1952年春夏,苏联为阻止西方集体安全体系的建立和西德重新武装,在五个多月内与美英法三国交换了八次照会,史称苏联“照会攻势”。本文通过对冷战中这一著名外交事件的介绍和评论,展示了东西方国家在战后处理德国统一和欧洲安全问题上的具体行动,揭示了苏联在贯彻“以统一换中立”对德战略时在具体外交政策上的得与失。 相似文献
8.
科技政策是国家为了实现特定时期的科技发展目标而制定的方针、政策及其相关规定,其核心主要涉及如何为科学行为分配配套的资源,以实现最佳服务于公众利益的目标。本文在结合国内相关研究基础上,基于Web of Science 数据库间70多年(1947-2018)的研究文献,综合利用文献计量学工具和自研系统,全面定量展示了科技政策研究领域的现状、热点及前沿趋势。结果表明,截至2018年该领域研究尚处于成长期,成熟度为3091%;期间共有136个国家（地区）参与该领域研究,排名前5的国家为美国、英国、德国、荷兰和加拿大;6197个相关研究机构中,萨塞克斯大学（英国）、曼彻斯特大学(美国)、乔治亚理工学院（美国）、麻省理工学院（美国）、阿姆斯特丹大学（荷兰）等作品丰富且影响力较大;以“开放创新、企业、生物科技、技术转移、知识产权、专利、三螺旋结构、纳米科技”等突现词代表了该领域的前沿研究方向,值得高度关注。 相似文献
9.
Ernst-Jürgen Horn 《Research Policy》1983,12(2):91-103
The so-called technological balance of payments has been widely and controversially discussed as an indicator of a country's performance in innovative activity and its role in the international transfer of technology. The main virtue of data on technological payments is usually ascribed to the fact that they are related to the output of innovative activity rather than to the input. And output indicators of innovative activity are in great demand in research on technical change, but in notoriously short supply.This paper examines the explanatory power of the technological balance of payments in the case of the West German economy. The drawbacks of West German data on the patents and licences account are discussed in detail. Then the patterns by industry and by country of the technological balance of payments are analyzed. Regarded across industries, a positive relationship is found between receipts — but not for payments — on patents and licences, on the one hand, and domestic R&D intensity, on the other. Technological payments seem to be closely related to foreign direct investment. For example, the bulk of payments to abroad is done by affiliates of foreign companies, to which only a very small fraction of receipts accrue. Taken together, there is no simple relationship between the technological balance of payments position and the innovativeness of countries. It would, therefore, be misleading to interprete the overall large deficit of the West German patents and licences account as an indicator of technological weakness. Furthermore, changes in the balance, particularly in recent years, suggest an increasing improvement. 相似文献
10.
Frieder Meyer-Krahmer 《Research Policy》1989,18(6)
The incorporation of an evaluation procedure in a growing number of innovation policy programmes has now become an accepted feature in the public management of many countries. There already exists substantial experience on the conduct of such evaluations. The purpose of this paper is to present some sample evaluations of measures to promote innovation in a number of European OECD countries (Federal Republic of Germany, France, Netherlands, Sweden). Reference will be made to four of them to illustrate the diversity of the evaluative approaches applied to the wide spectrum of measures to promote innovation. Each of these examples will be studied in detail in order to identify their characteristic features, particularly with attention to their causes, performance and their use in political decision processes.A conceptual framework will be presented in order to propose a typology of various forms of evaluation and to characterize the four case studies. It shows that concept and process of evaluations are strongly influences by the specific context and consensus or dissent on objectives and resources. The case studies give a clearer insight into the factors determining the use of results of evaluations; and to what extent the role of evaluations varies from pure legitimation to a systematic and rational basis for decision making in the area of technology policy.Innovation policy consists of government actions towards technological developments and their implementation in the economy. Innovation, in this case, is defined as the development of technologically new or improved products or techniques and their commercialization in the market or implementation within production. Often evaluation means the examination and assessment of the mode of action and of the effectiveness of government innovation policy. However, finding a general interpretation of the expression “evaluation of an innovation policy” presents greater difficulty, and here wide divergences are evident. In the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands, the term encompasses all forms of monitoring and assessing the operation and/or the effectiveness of an innovation policy. In Sweden, evaluation usually means performance of the a posteriori analysis of a measure. The terms “ex ante evaluation” and “follow-up evaluation” are respectively used for the explicit designation of prospective and retrospective analyses. In France, the term “evaluation” is associated with the notion of value. It often carries the connotation of a value assessment with the full monitoring implications of that expression. 相似文献
11.
Ingemar N.H. Dörfer 《Research Policy》1974,3(2):133-155
Sweden's technological development based on big science supporting high politics is turning to more welfare-oriented technologies. The tension between the university reform performed by an inward-looking government and industrial innovation carried out by an outward-looking business community is discussed.The paper covers the time span of the quiet postwar years, the attempt to institutionalize science policy in the 1960's and the sectoral approach to science and technology advocated in the 1970's. The implications of the polarization of science policy between the government and the technological community at a time of European integration is discussed. 相似文献
12.
Sheila Jasanoff 《Research Policy》1985,14(1):23-38
This article examines a decade of federal support for biotechnology in the Federal Republic of Germany in order to determine the impact of liberal corporatist patterns of decision-making on industrial policy. For this purpose, industrial policy is taken to include both public initiatives aimed at promoting the new technology and those designed to control its risks.Two distinct forms of corporatism are discernible in this case study. In the first, the principal actors are large businesses, the state, and to a lesser extent, the academic reserch community. These actors have been most influential in defining the scope and specific objectives of the federally funced R&D program in biotechnology. A more traditional form of corporatism, including organized labor, has been engaged in the debate on regulatory policies.In the case of biotechnology, these patterns of corporatism have created the consensus necessary for the adoption of a comprehensive R&D program, but have perpetuated certain barriers to technological innovation. In particular, the reliance on established peak organizations to formulate policy has discouraged structural changes that could have enhanced Germany's early competitiveness in biotechnology. Incrementalism has produced more favorable results in the context of regulatory policy, by permitting control strategies to develop in step with technological progress. 相似文献
13.
14.
经过改革开放40年的经济和科技体制改革,我国科技力量的数量布局已发生了根本性变化,到2017年,企业占全社会研发经费总量达到78%,已取代高校、科研院所成为全社会研发经费投入的主体,我国科技成果转化模式向技术创新模式转变的微观基础条件已经形成。但在陕西,企业占全社会研发经费总量仅为47.7%,这种微观基础远未形成。在新时代,陕西实现技术创新模式转变的路径和政策措施主要一是以加大企业研发投入强度为着力点,促进企业真正成为技术创新的主体;二是以体制机制创新为保障,提高科技成果本地转化率;三是以切实落实带整体突破性的“陕九条”政策为突破口,引导科技创新人才在企业技术创新活动中“名利双收”并向企业流动;四是以推动企业走自主创新道路为方向,实现陕西强大的国家科技从创新链到产业链上下游链接下游的原始创新,强化大型企业和工程的集成创新,突出中小企业引进消化吸收再创新;五是要切实解决政府激励企业技术创新政策过剩、越位和错位问题,如要把激励企业技术创新事前的财政补贴,转向面向消费市场补贴,即把创新经费补贴给需求方、采购方、技术使用方或者是企业取得重大创新之后再予补贴。 相似文献
15.
研究德国、英国和法国的典型创新指数,分析3个国家的科技创新能力,总结相关特征,并提出若干启示。 相似文献
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17.
广东省的科技经费尤其是RD经费投入和支出近年来快速增长,但与发达地区相比,仍然存在着RD投入力度不足,RD经费内部支出结构失衡、高校RD经费支出规模较小等问题,并用回归分析方法分析了RD经费投入对经济增长有着积极意义。因此广东省还可以进一步加大RD经费的投入及改善RD经费支出结构,把广东省真正打造成科技强省。 相似文献
18.
Recently there have been discussions in the US concerning the implementation of a recoupment policy for government expenditures on R & D.The basic questions in developing recoupment policies can be stated as: (1)“it appropriate to seek recoupment of government-supported R & D when such R & D subsequently is utilized to generate private profits? (2) If so, what options exist?”In addressing the first question, the authors develop some pro and con arguments with respect to recoupment. The authors conclude that there are no easy criteria for judging whether and when recoupment of government expenditures on R & D is appropriate. There is currently inadequate information about, and analyses of, the benefits and costs of a recoupment policy upon which to base a policy design. Reasonable people may disagree both on general criteria and on specific cases.In addressing the second question, a review of foreign programs that incorporate recoupment provisions was made to see what lessons they might provide for the US. Programs with recoupment provisions do not represent a major part of total government expenditures on R & D, although in some countries and time periods they have been a significant part of government expenditures on civilian, industry-related R & D, especially in selected industries. When employed, recoupment policies do not seem on average to have been particularly successful. 相似文献
19.
科技政策是国家为了实现特定时期的科技发展目标而制定的方针、政策及其相关规定，其核心主要涉及如何为科学行为分配配套的资源，以实现最佳服务于公众利益的目标。本文在结合国内相关研究基础上，基于Web of Science 数据库间70多年(1947-2018)的研究文献，综合利用文献计量学工具和自研系统，全面定量展示了科技政策研究领域的现状、热点及前沿趋势。结果表明，截至2018年该领域研究尚处于成长期，成熟度为3091%；期间共有136个国家（地区）参与该领域研究，排名前5的国家为美国、英国、德国、荷兰和加拿大；6197个相关研究机构中，萨塞克斯大学（英国）、曼彻斯特大学(美国)、乔治亚理工学院（美国）、麻省理工学院（美国）、阿姆斯特丹大学（荷兰）等作品丰富且影响力较大；以“开放创新、企业、生物科技、技术转移、知识产权、专利、三螺旋结构、纳米科技”等突现词代表了该领域的前沿研究方向，值得高度关注。 相似文献
20.
《普罗米修斯》2012,30(2):368-370
Limited expenditure on R &; D has received inadequate attention as an explanation of Australia's poor economic performance. This paper compares the level and composition of R &; D expenditure in Australia with those of other countries. Some reasons for Australia's low level of R &; D are explored and the policy implications of the analysis are investigated. 相似文献