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1.
B. G. Tilak Jandhyala 《Prospects》1997,27(1):85-107
Summary and conclusions It is difficult to isolate the effects of adjustment policies on education. Even elaborate country studies could not properly
assess the definitive effects of adjustment. As Stanley Fischer (1991, p. 526) observed, ‘the evaluation of adjustment lending
is not only extremely difficult, but also essential. None of the methods of evaluation are entirely satisfactory’. Here, an
attempt has been made to examine the association between adjustment and the development of education. The effects identified
can, at best, be treated asprobable effects. While no causal relationship could be found, intense adjustment is generally associated with declines in a variety
of indicators on educational development in Asian countries, similar to patterns observed in many other regions. At the same
time, it should also be noted that, on the average, while the education sector in Asian countries suffered during adjustment,
it also seems to have been relatively well protected from the brutal effects affecting developing countries in other regions
experiencing adjustment.
The effects of adjustment, however, have not been uniform on all countries of the Asian region, and several economies suffered
severely. It has been found that, during the adjustment processes, the proportion of GNP or of total government expenditure
allocated to education declined in a majority of the adjusting (including intensely adjusting) countries, even though the
corresponding figures also point to a decline in some of the non-adjusting countries. In a large number of the adjusting countries,
the relative share of capital expenditure on education declined and that of current expenditure increased.
The allocation of resources to primary education seems to have been protected in most countries, except in Pakistan and Bangladesh.
This is also true of non-adjusting countries, such an India and Malaysia, where the relative share of primary education actually
increased. More importantly, the real expenditure per student in primary education increased significantly in all countries,
with the exception of the Philippines and Nepal, during the first half of the 1980s (the only period for which these data
are available). Expenditure per student in primary education as a ratio of GNP per capita also increased in all countries,
while the corresponding proportion relating to higher education declined in all countris, except in India. All this indicates
that concerted efforts have been made by the adjusting as well as the non-adjusting countries in Asia to protect primary education;
a remarkable achievement when compared to other developing countries of the world (see Berstecher & Carr-Hill, 1990). Adjusting
countries could have protected primary education from budget cuts through social safety-net programmes introduced as a part
of adjustment policies in several countries, as in India during the 199s.
However, enrolment ratios in primary education declined in two of the intensely adjusting countries, namely in Pakistan and
Thailand. Although the gross enrolment ratio in Pakistan is deplorably low (44% in 1990), Bangladesh registered remarkable
progress with increases not only in gross but also in net enrolment ratios, which went up from 54% in 1985 to 69% by the end
of the 1980s. The number of pupils per teacher in Bangladesh, however, has increased to one of the highest levels in the region,
suggesting that quality was traded-off for quantitative expansion.
Internal efficiency also increased in all countries of the region. While gender discrimination has been found to have increased
as far as the stock of the educated people is concerned, gender discrimination in enrolments has been coming down in all the
countries.
Lastly, the relative share of the private sector, although limited at present, seems to be increasing. Fees appear to have
been introduced even in primary schools in some countries and have had a negative effect on the demand for education and on
total enrolments. Increases in the degree of privatization and the introduction/increase of fees in education have been dominant,
thought not necessarily explicit, components of adjustment polcies.
While, on the whole, the effects of adjustment on education seemed to be mixed, and no striking difference could be observed
between adjusting/intensely adjusting and non-adjusting countries in short-term educational development trends in Asia, the
tentative evidence from a few countries does suggest a strong association between adjusting policies and a deterioration in
educational situations. Such a strong association is clearly discernible with respect to several important indicators of educational
development, although not with respect to all. It would be useful to look into this association more closely in one or two
selected countries to clearly understand the effects of adjustment on education. Though the problems that will be found and
the associations observd in a particular country may be unique, and may not be relevant for others, such country studies would
be valuable to draw lessons, not only for the countries concerned, but also for others.
The experience of both the Asian (and even other) countries, as well as of international agencies with structural adjustment
programmes is short (about ten of fifteen years). As ‘adjustment’ is a long on-going process, analysis of its effects over
a short period of time would be premature and problematic, as quick results cannot be expected. More importantly, it is probable
that the ‘positive impacts are realized with a considerable time lag, while its adverse effects are immediate and highly visible
... [but these programmes] may not be sustainable, economically and politically, if their immediate [negative] impacts are
not mitigated’ (Yanagihara, 1989, p. 319-21). Otherwise, programmes may not be taken to their logical conclusion. Further,
gradual adjustment policies have been generally found to be successful in the East Asian economies, rather than a ‘big bang’
approach involving shocks and sudden simultaneous shifts in all policies in an attempt to move forward quickly (Agrawal et
al., 1992, p. 182). The latter approach can, in fact, be counter-productive.
As a result of the growing research in the area and the interest of international organizations, such as UNICEF, the adverse
effects of structural adjustment on social sectors are being monitored by both the donor agencies, such as the World Bank/IMF,
and the countries concerned. Accordingly, structural adjustment programmes are being supplemented in a number of countries
with sectoral adjustment and ‘social safety nets’ and other contingency programmes, so that the poor are not severely affected.
Primary education is one of the important components of such programmes. In general, it is necessary that structural adjustment
programmes and education sector adjustment programmes be integrated, and that the adjustment programmes include agreements
on increasing public expenditure on education. Structural adjustment policies without such education sector adjustment programmes
and social safety-net programmes that guarantee increases in public expenditure on education are likely to cause serious adverse
effects. Hence, ‘it is important that structural adjustment agreements recognize the need for countries to commit new resources
and reallocate existing resources toward investment sectors, such as basic education, which affect both social welfae and
medium- and long-term economic growth’ (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1992, p. 63).
Further, it is necessary for the success of the adjustment programmes that the primary responsibility for the concetion of
structural adjustment programmes lie with the national authorities that will implement and sustain the programmes; imposed
programmes may not work (Malan, 1991, p. 539). The Republic of Korea is a good example of how structural adjustment programmes
could succeed because it was undertaken on the basis of its own conviction. This will also help in reducing the political
costs of adjustment programmes. With the level of expertise and competence available in the Asian countries one should expect
that shifting the primary responsibility to the national governments is perfectly possible, compared to those regions that
do not have indigenous expertise.
Of late, some flexibility in and softening of the World Bank/IMF’s hard-line views of precisely what an ideal package of structural
adjustment reforms should consist of are visible (Ranis, 1987, p. 97), though it may have to be further improved (Tilak, 1992).
Lastly, it should be realized by all-the lending institutions and the countries concerned-that education becomes an important
input in the success of the adjustment programmes, and hence investment in education is necessary for the very success and
sustenance of structural adjustment programmes.
Original language: English
Jandhyala B.G. Tilak (India) Head of the Educational Finance Unit, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, Ph.D. from
Delhi School of Economics. Mr Tilak taught at the University of Virginia, the Indian Institute of Education and the University
of Delhi. He was also on the staff of the World Bank. Recent publications includeEducation for development in Asia (1994),Educational planning at grassroots (1991), and several articles on economics, development studies and education. A contributor to theInternational encyclopaedia of education. Editor of theJournal of educational planning and administration and a member of the editorial board ofHigher education policy. 相似文献
2.
This paper argues that globalisation has implications for research and theory in the social sciences, demanding that the social no longer be seen as homologous with nation, but also linked to postnational or global fields. This situation has theoretical and methodological implications for comparative education specifically focused on education policy, which traditionally has taken the nation-state as the unit of analysis, and also worked with ‘methodological nationalism’. The paper argues that globalisation has witnessed a rescaling of educational politics and policymaking and relocated some political authority to an emergent global education policy field, with implications for the functioning of national political authority and national education policy fields. This rescaling and this reworking of political authority are illustrated through two cases: the first is concerned with the impact of a globalised policy discourse of the ‘knowledge economy’ proselytised by the OECD and its impact in Australian policy developments; the second is concerned explicitly with the constitution of a global education policy field as a commensurate space of equivalence, as evidenced in the OECD’s PISA and educational indicators work and their increasing global coverage. The paper indicatively utilises Bourdieu’s ‘thinking tools’ to understand the emergent global education policy field and suggests these are very useful for doing comparative education policy analysis. 相似文献
3.
梁燕华 《商丘师范学院学报》2014,(10):105-109
面对经济复苏缓慢、需求增长、资源稀缺、生态环境矛盾日益尖锐的复杂国际形势,世界各国都试图通过调整高等教育结构及重新定位以应对不断变化的经济和社会变革压力,高等教育功能出现历史性意义的嬗变。其嬗变的根本原因包括高等教育市场化思潮全球化传播、高等教育的公众信任危机及高等教育“大众化”与“异质化”趋势并存。高等教育功能嬗变过程中呈现层级性、功利趋势和多元化态势形态特征。高等教育功能嬗变要求高等教育要平衡全球教育诉求和国内教育诉求,重构高等教育评估体系,重新定位高等教育机构外部显性目标和内部隐性目标。 相似文献
4.
Julian M. Groves 《British Journal of Sociology of Education》2018,39(3):381-395
We examine school choices made by western expatriate parents in post-colonial Hong Kong in order to understand the essence of imagined global citizenship and its implications for existing ethnic and class inequalities in the education system. Responding to changes in the global job market, a small but increasingly visible group of parents are seeking to challenge what they see as the constraints of expatriate life by developing global opportunities for their children through Cantonese language acquisition in the local education system. Drawing on the sociological literature on school choice and middle-class identity, we argue that these parents are negotiating for themselves a global imaginary in which cultures can easily be traversed and social class is levelled. But such global desires, we suggest, can also replicate colonial privilege in a way that marginalises poorer schools and other ethnic minorities in the education system. 相似文献
5.
Carlos Alberto Torres 《European Journal of Education》2015,50(3):262-279
This article focuses on the role of global universities and globalisations in an age of global interdependence and cosmopolitanism. Competing agendas that result from actions and reactions to multiple globalisations are considered in relation to global citizenship education. These agendas are crucial in understanding dilemmas of the local and the global in relation to education. Key emerging agendas are highlighted, including those of the hyperglobalisers, skeptics and transformationists. Three themes are central for this conversation, namely a) how multiple globalisations are impacting global life and academics, b) how networks have become privileged sites for global education, and c) the implications of globalisation and networks for global citizenship and global universities. 相似文献
6.
Bernard Longden 《Educational studies》2000,26(4):455-474
Higher education as a system is a recent phenomenon. In the developmental process, particularly over the past 35 years, tensions have built up which are grounded in competing beliefs and aspirations about the form and shape of higher education. This paper examines some of the competing tensions and evaluates some of the implications of progressing from an élite to a universal higher education system. The pressure by Government to raise standards and to provide an educated skill base to maintain a competitive edge in a global economy can be seen against an internal higher education world holding on to 'élite instincts and traditions'. 相似文献
7.
For nearly two decades now, the rankings literature has continued to suggest that governments are adopting performance-based funding models which prioritize criteria favored by global rankings. This study examines this assertion by analyzing the performance-based funding programs of Austria, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden. The study finds that the orientation of performance-based funding on global rankings is weaker than it is commonly assumed. Except for Finland, the funding volume universities raise from this orientation is not substantial to influence the institutional performance. The study also analyzes the recent structural changes to performance-based funding in each jurisdiction. Policy implications are provided in the conclusion for higher education systems revising their performance-based funding or considering a shift to performance-based accountability. 相似文献
8.
升学需求和经济发展对于高等教育规模影响的变动研究 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
本文主要探讨地方经济情况与高等教育规模的相互关系.理论假设是高等教育发展规模不是一个单纯的数量增加的过程,而且在增量中具有一定的结构调整作用,结构调整主要体现在,一方面高等教育规模和升学需求联系进一步紧密,另外一方面地方经济发展水平越发决定高等教育的规模.采用工具变量法,考察扩招前后年份的情况发现,我国高等教育扩招促进了教育机会分配的公平,同时也使其发展水平与地方经济社会发展水平更加适应. 相似文献
9.
本文通过对中国高等教育层次结构调整的历史、现状进行论述,分析其与高校大学生就业的关系,提出在金融危机背景下中国高等教育层次结构调整的诸多举措和建议。对高等教育层次结构问题进行研究,对解决高校大学生就业难问题具有重要的现实意义。 相似文献
10.
从规模扩张到结构优化:教育结构的战略性调整 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
教育结构调整在教育发展方式转变中具有战略意义。目前,我国的教育结构在类别、专业、布局和英才教育体系等方面存在诸多问题。本文针对教育结构中存在的问题提出了相应的解决策略,建议提高职业型、应用型、非正规教育在教育体系中的结构比例,注重不同层级教育在专业设置上的衔接性,将英才教育纳入教育体系,发挥政府的统筹作用,加强对教育结构调整的预测性研究。 相似文献
11.
《比较教育学》2012,48(4):505-523
This article explores the neo-institutional theory of global policy convergence, or ‘isomorphism’, by comparatively examining one of its most recent manifestations – the global diffusion of national standardised testing – in Australia and Japan. By understanding the particular configurations of national testing as being conditioned by both nations' institutional frameworks and historical legacies of education policy development, this study illuminates how the conditioning effects of these frameworks and legacies resulted in the divergent ways in which a policy model circulating at the transnational level became translated into assessment policies that are ‘simultaneously similar and different’. These findings are related to the concept of ‘path dependency’, emphasised in particular by political science and historical institutionalism. The theoretical conclusions drawn on this basis indicate a promising direction of comparative education research, one that recognises global convergence and national divergence as processes that simultaneously shape the globalisation of education policy. In so doing, they summarise the implications of the study for the ongoing debate on the neo-institutionalist theory in comparative education. 相似文献
12.
Athena Vongalis‐Macrow 《British Journal of Sociology of Education》2007,28(4):425-439
Analysis of teachers’ agency as multifarious change, embedded in educational reform in the global era, stands largely unexamined in educational policy. Although the concept of teachers as agents has political implications, beyond this, examining teachers’ agency offers ways of describing and reviewing changes to teachers’ work and relations within evolving education systems. Local systems draw from globally orientated education policies, which continue to influence to the way that local systems redesign education. In the global context, education systems are complex interactions between structure and agency, evidenced as ‘multiplicity undergoing change’. In other words, there is dynamic and dialectic interplay between structure and agency. Teachers’ agency, germane to dynamic interplay, means that teachers are not only engaging in the reproduction of structural change aligning globalization‐driven reforms to their work and practice, but also, in adapting and reacting to new structural conditions, they are transformed through their actions. In this paper, the focus becomes teachers’ agency as a framework for understanding how teachers are redesigned and reassembled to do things differently within restructured education systems. Finally, the discussion considers the possible consequences of teachers work and practice, given teachers’ agency relative to the macro policy of superfigures and the transitional national/global structures. 相似文献
13.
《International Journal of Educational Development》1998,18(4):305-317
Many developing countries have relied on the varied forms of diversified secondary technical education as the main venue for training skilled workers and mid-level technicians. But there have been numerous and strong critics against this mode of technical education. As an alternative, the Mexican Government established the CONALEP system in the late 1970s. This study tests the viability of the system by evaluating CONALEP graduates' labor market performance in comparison with other forms of education. It also supplements the scant literature on the transition from technical education to work and on the use of technical skills. Through innovations — inter alia, an autonomous national organizational structure, decentralized operations, strong links to industry, use of industry-experienced instructors, terminal program with modest cost recovery, and highly practical courses — CONALEP has forged an effective technical secondary education system aimed at the Mexican labor market with substantial spill-over effects. Although it is a Mexican program, the special features of the CONALEP system bear policy implications for other countries as well. With globalization and rapidly changing technology requirements of the Mexican economy, however, this alternative form of technical secondary education faces new challenges, notably adjustment of its curriculum to changing market circumstances and improvement of its external and internal efficiency. 相似文献
14.
《Journal of moral education》2012,41(3):251-260
This article raises a number of interrelated issues. It first considers the need for a disability-aware education for everyone, including post-school leavers. This has both structural and curricular implications. At the structural level, it is argued that if we are to move towards a more ethical educational system, institutional discrimination must be dismantled. At the curricular level, the notion of a "culture of resistance", with distinctive moral characteristics, is explored. The article next considers the moral education of disabled people, covering such issues as recognition of alternative perspectives, building on life-experience and the development of self-confidence and self-esteem. In conclusion, it is suggested that a moral education in an ethical system would integrate universalising understandings of the principle of justice, and its application, with the development of contextual thought which can take account of the value and uniqueness of individuals and the particularity of their educational needs. 相似文献
15.
Globalization and educational restructuring: University merging and changing governance in China 总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4
This article sets out in the context of globalization to identify, examine and discuss issues related to structural adjustment and educational restructuring in China, with particular reference to university merging and changes in higher education governance models. While it is basically an historical and documentary analysis of policy change in Chinese higher education, this article focuses on restructuring strategies that the Chinese government has adopted to make its university systems more competitive and efficient in the global market context. University merging in China should not be simply understood as a pure higher education reform but rather a fundamental change in higher education governance model from an ‘interventionist state model’ to an ‘accelerationist state model’. Rather than globalization bringing about the decline of the nation state, this article shows transformations taking place in Chinese universities may not necessarily diminish the capacity of the state but instead make the Chinese government a more activist state in certain aspects. 相似文献
16.
Higher education systems need to increasingly transform in order to face new challenges of society in a modern and global context. Both Europe and China are facing challenges in restructuring their higher education systems and embracing the potential for higher education to deliver innovative teaching and learning as well as social and economic services for a changing society. This paper analyses the challenges to European and Chinese universities today and elaborates on the implications of these challenges for EU-China higher education collaboration. An analysis of challenges and relevant strategies in these two contexts can offer us insights into the strengths and weaknesses of each system. This can act as a solid basis for future collaborations or as potential barriers. Thus, this paper endeavors to fill in the gap regarding EU-China higher education cooperation by reducing the knowledge deficit and bringing mutual understanding, respect, trust, and ultimately benefit to both sides. 相似文献
17.
This study examines the mediating role of intercultural wonderment in relation to students’ development of a global perspective. We utilize both confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to validate the intercultural wonderment construct and test the direct and indirect effects of the structural pathways in the model, respectively. Additionally, we highlight the relative and comparative effects of our model across cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal dimensions of student development while also testing equivalent and nested models to rule out alternative and rival explanations. The results have broad implications for study abroad researchers and practitioners who are interested in developing a deeper understanding of how students learn and develop in study abroad contexts, while offering a more nuanced understanding of how experiential and constructivist practices influence student learning abroad. 相似文献
18.
博洛尼亚进程中的法国高等教育改革研究 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
博洛尼亚进程对欧洲各国,特别是以法国为代表的高等教育体制高度集权的国家产生了重要的影响.法国在博洛尼亚进程框架内进行的高等教育改革对原有的高等教育体制产生了巨大冲击.法国通过进行高等教育体制结构调整、实行欧洲学分转换系统、建立专门的质量评估机构等措施增强了大学之间的合作,推动了学生的流动性,密切了高等教育领域与社会经济部门的联系.法国这次的高等教育改革增强了高等教育体制的开放性和流动性,提高了高等教育体制对社会发展的反应能力,促进了法国高等教育质量的提高. 相似文献
19.
Fatma Mizikaci 《Higher Education in Europe》2005,30(1):67-79
The development of higher education and research constitutes a possible pathway to innovation and global competitiveness. Nation states, however, often seek the quickest adaptations, with minimum investment, ignoring essential political and structural changes. Turkey maintains its highly centralized system of higher education observing the national policies in the field. This paper addresses the international aspects of Turkish higher education, with special focus on student and academic mobility. Present day Turkish higher education system has been shaped by two dominant major events: the post‐Soviet era and the country's integration into the European Union. 相似文献
20.
雍开涛 《绵阳师范学院学报》2007,26(7):134-137
高等教育贯彻落实科学发展观就是要坚持做到以人为本,各类教育协调发展,统筹城乡教育和区域教育,规模、结构、效益相统一。高等教育可持续发展的关键是大众化,大众化的关键是结构调整,结构调整的关键是大力发展高等职业技术教育。 相似文献