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1.
MacLeod C 《Isis; an international review devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences》2012,103(2):328-339
At a time when neoliberalism and financial austerity are together encouraging academic scientists to seek market alternatives to state funding, this essay investigates why, a century ago, their predecessors explicitly rejected private enterprise and the private ownership of ideas and inventions available to them through the patent system. The early twentieth century witnessed the success of a long campaign by British scientists to persuade the state to assume responsibility for the funding of basic research ("pure science"): their findings would enter the intellectual commons; their rewards would be primarily reputational (financial only secondarily, through consequent career advancement). The essay summarizes recent research in three separate fields of British techno-science--electricity, aviation, and agricultural botany--all of which were laying claim, at this time, to a heightened commercial or military importance that raised new questions about the ownership of scientific ideas. It suggests that each of the three established an idiosyncratic relationship with the patent system or with other forms of "intellectual property," which would both influence their emergent disciplines and affect the extent to which commercial enterprise could remain a viable funding strategy. 相似文献
2.
在15世纪末~18世纪末的英国圈地运动中涌现出大量的失地农民,没有了生产资料的他们被排挤出农业生产领域,无奈之下他们向城市迁移。然而,迁入城市的他们真的被城市所包容、所接纳、所同化了吗？事实并不见得如此。从城市化的各方面分析,很难证明圈地运动产生的农村移民对英国城市化进程有实质性的推进。 相似文献
3.
17世纪,相对于英国画坛而言是繁荣的．也是尴尬的。繁荣之处在于这个世纪来自不同国度的杰出艺术家云集这里,主宰着英国的画坛。尴尬之处在于正是这样一群外籍艺术家催生着英国美术进入属于自己的绘画时代——荷加斯时代。这群外籍艺术家们顺应英国统治者的意愿,将肖像画创作推向顶峰。同时,也留下了大量令后世叹为观止的肖像画杰作。 相似文献
4.
Ronald Anderson 《Endeavour》2001,25(4):157
James Clerk Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism forms one of the major scientific texts of the 19th century, describing the phenomena of electricity and magnetism and the interaction between them. The sources Maxwell acknowledged as the inspiration for his own approach were the Englishman Michael Faraday and his fellow Scotsman William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin). In the Treatise Maxwell presents an approach he maintains was equivalent mathematically to the well established Continental electromagnetism but focused on an action via a medium approach to electromagnetism and located within a British experimental tradition. Exploring these features reveals the Treatise to be in accord with other deep themes in Maxwell's writings, which ground him intellectually and personally in the world of 19th century British Natural Philosophy. 相似文献
5.
Fry I 《Endeavour》2006,30(1):24-28
Most scientists at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century chose to ignore the question of the origin of life on Earth, regarding it as too mysterious and complex to handle. Yet, in the early 1950s an experimental field devoted to the study of the problem made its first steps. The pioneering theories of several scientists in the first decades of the 20th century played a major role in this transformation, notably those of the Russian biochemist Alexander I. Oparin and the British geneticist and biochemist J.B.S. Haldane. The ideas of the lesser-known American psycho-physiologist Leonard Troland also made a significant contribution to subsequent developments in origin-of-life research. Therefore, it is well worth taking a look at the professional, philosophical and ideological commitments that shaped the approaches of the three scientists to origin-of-life research. 相似文献
6.
Larson EJ 《Isis; an international review devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences》2011,102(1):34-59
It is well known to historians of science that, early in the nineteenth century, terrestrial magnetism became both a popular science and a significant research enterprise in Europe. For Britain, as a maritime power, it offered benefits for navigation. Theoretical physicists claimed that, with enough observations of magnetic variation, intensity, and dip taken throughout the world over time, they could deduce regular mathematical laws to explain the phenomena. Because of the lack of data from the region, particular attention focused on field research in deep southern latitudes. Finding the precise location of the South Magnetic Pole became a prime goal for some enthusiasts. With burgeoning colonies in Africa and the Antipodes, Britain assumed a leading role in this effort. British scientists looked to their government for funding and called on the Admiralty to dispatch expeditions. It is less well known that both popular and scientific interest in terrestrial magnetism continued throughout the nineteenth century and into the early twentieth century. The H.M.S. Erebus and H.M.S. Terror (1839-1843), H.M.S. Challenger (1872-1876), and R.Y. Discovery (1901-1904) sailed to the Antarctic as part of Britain's extended "Magnetic Crusade," which culminated with Royal Society geologist T. W. Edgeworth David of the Nimrod expedition reaching the South Magnetic Pole in 1909. 相似文献
7.
Kuklick H 《Isis; an international review devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences》2011,102(1):1-33
In the latter part of the nineteenth century, diverse sciences grounded in natural history made a virtue of field research that somehow tested scientists' endurance; disciplinary change derived from the premise that witnesses were made reliable by character-molding trials. The turn to the field was a function of structural transformations in various quarters, including (but hardly limited to) global politics, communications systems, and scientific institutions, and it conduced to biogeographical explanations, taxonomic schemes that admitted of heterogeneity, and affective research styles. Sociocultural anthropology, which took specialized shape at the beginning of the twentieth century, shared many properties with other field sciences, but its method--participant observation-was distinctive. Critical to the method's definition were the efforts of the British experimental psychologist-anthropologist W. H. R. Rivers, who relied on notions then widespread in Europe and the United States. The discipline's future mythic hero, Bronislaw Malinowski, embraced Rivers's model. For both men, proper fieldwork meant using the researcher's body as an instrument and entailed understanding both the anthropologist's body and the research subject's body as energy systems; this symmetry facilitated a relativist perspective. Participant observation remains central to sociocultural anthropology, but the discipline's pedagogic habits contributed to loss of memory of its energetic conceptualization. 相似文献
8.
Brown M 《Endeavour》2006,30(3):108-112
The industrialization and urbanization of Britain during the 19th century gave the medical profession something to think about. In particular, were the radical changes taking place in society responsible for the sudden rise in endemic and epidemic disease? This article (part of the Science in the Industrial Revolution series) examines the reactions of two key figures in the history of British public health, James Philips Kay and Thomas Southwood Smith, to this question. Their outlooks typify the tendency of Victorian medical practitioners to construct economies of health that saw disease as a consequence of the violation of natural laws and cycles rather than as a product of industrial modernity. 相似文献
9.
Roberts P 《Endeavour》2011,35(4):142-150
In 1911-1912 Roald Amundsen and Robert Falcon Scott led rival parties in a race to the geographic South Pole. While both parties reached the Pole--Amundsen first--Scott's men died on the return journey. Amundsen became a Norwegian icon through his record-setting travels; Scott became a symbol of courage and devotion to science. The memory of each was invoked at various points during the twentieth century in the context of contemporary Antarctic events. Scott's status as a scientific figure was central to the Scott Polar Research Institute, while Amundsen's lack of scientific legacy became a way for British polar explorers to differentiate themselves from Norwegian contemporaries during the interwar years. After 1945 Scott and Amundsen were again invoked as exemplars of national polar achievement, even as the rise of large-scale science on the continent overshadowed past British and Norwegian achievements. In the present Amundsen and Scott remain wedded to particular values, focused respectively on national achievement and sacrifice in the name of science, while their race has become secondary. 相似文献
10.
《Endeavour》1999,23(1):5-9
In 1854 the British East India Company, acting in co-operation with the Prussian Crown, commissioned Hermann, Adolph and Robert Schlagintweit to undertake a scientific expedition to India and High Asia. Despite the mission's outstanding achievements, all the brothers ended forgotten and miserable. This article will discuss (1) how three sons of a Munich eye surgeon attracted and lost so much high-level attention, and (2) what the Schlagintweits' successes and failures tell us about British and German science in the middle of the 19th century. 相似文献
11.
《Research Policy》2013,42(10):1716-1723
This article considers the historiographical and theoretical significance of Nicholas von Tunzelmann's first book, Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860. Von Tunzelmann assessed the quantitative impact of the Watt steam engine and its pirate copies on the British economy using the social savings method pioneered by R.W. Fogel, showing that the impact was smaller and later than many historians had supposed. These results are of more than quantitative significance because they call into question a dominant line in the history of industrialization that focuses on the steam engine as a key determinant of the dynamics of industrial growth in Britain from the late eighteenth century. This article discusses the origin of this line in the work of Arnold Toynbee and outlines its long-term influence on economic history, including contemporary debates on the question of why Europe outpaced China and India from the seventeenth century. These issues are important also for innovation studies, which often describes the relation between innovation and growth in terms of such ‘critical technologies’ as steam power; these accounts are subject to the same weaknesses as technicist histories of industrialization. Von Tunzelmann's early work is therefore of continuing theoretical and empirical significance as we seek an adequate theory of the links between innovation and growth. 相似文献
12.
19世纪现实主义悄然崛起。英国小说家夏洛利·勃朗特的《简·爱》便是其扛鼎之作。本文试图通过简·爱的童年经历及与罗切斯特之间一波三折的爱情故事,探究简·爱的深层精神内核：一个出身低微、生活道路曲折,却始终坚持维护独立人格、追求个性自由、主张人生平等、敢于反抗、敢于争取自由,不向人生低头的坚强女性形象。 相似文献
13.
《普罗米修斯》2012,30(2):331-348
Technological change and employment effects are not new phenomena. This paper examines some responses to technological innovation in the work situation around the turn of the century, a period of rapid and unprecedented scientific and technological development. The views of Tom Mann, an articulate British trade unionist and labour leader, on a number of subjects relating to these developments are compared with some recent writing, and are found to anticipate much of what is currently being said on these same subjects. It is shown that Mann, together with a number of other trade union representatives, basically welcomed technological innovation as a means of reducing the physical drudgery and long hours commonly associated with nineteenth century working conditions, notwithstanding frequently found assumptions of Luddite attitudes. Some comparisons with and implications for today of these positive responses from workers in the past are suggested. 相似文献
14.
Edward F. Wonder 《Research Policy》1976,5(3):240-268
That the British nuclear industry has been in difficult straits for some time is not a particularly startling observation. What is more disappointing and worrisome is the failure of successive British governments to come to grips with the fundamental organizational and technological sources of the problem. The Atomic Energy Authority dominated the civil nuclear project and relegated the private industrial consortia to a clearly subordinate role. The troublesome British reactor technology stood outside the mainstream of world reactor development. In dealing with the nuclear question the Government tinkered with organization and only belatedly addressed itself to the choice of technology.Explaining this hesitant approach suggests a look at a politics of self-interest in which the major public and private actors lobbied to protect their own interests. Inflated expectation of a future nuclear bonanza encouraged the belief that a little reform at the margins would set everything right. Efforts to adjust the structure of the private sector (the reorganizations in 1968 and 1973–1974) were politically easier to make, but their superficiality left the more fundamental questions entouched. A certain technological hubris and an almost unyielding political commitment to British technology in general blinded many to evidence contrary to their beliefs of British superiority until 1974 when the weight of events resulted in the adoption of a new technology and of a more reserved approach to nuclear power ordering. By this time, however, British influence in the world reactor industry had slipped badly. 相似文献
15.
语境理论最早是在上世纪20年代由英国人类学家Malinowsky 提出的,经过接近一个世纪的发展,不同的语言学家有不同的观点和认识。本文试图从一个新的角度---语境理论,来解决英语应试存在的问题,从语境的角度来分析如何针对不同题型采用不同的解决方法和解题思路。 相似文献
16.
Fara P 《Endeavour》2004,28(1):12-13
J.B.S. Haldane's photographs reveal that this eminent geneticist was also a militant political agitator. Deeply engaged in left-wing British politics, Haldane eventually joined the Communist party, but found it increasingly difficult to reconcile his scientific beliefs with his Marxist commitments. During the controversy over Stalin's rejection of genetics in favour of Trofim Lysenko's agricultural reforms, Haldane's activities were critically interpreted from various different perspectives. 相似文献
17.
Nye MJ 《Endeavour》1999,23(4):148-154
There is a long tradition within scientific communities that encourages governments, patrons and citizens to enlist scientific expertise in the service of the public good. However, since the 17th century, scientists who have engaged in public political controversy have often been judged harshly by scientific colleagues, as well as by political adversaries. Some prominent scientists were politically active in Germany, France and England during the 1920s and 1930s; controversial stands were taken by the British physicist P.M.S. Blackett and the American chemist Linus C. Pauling against their countries' nuclear weapons policy following the Second World War. 相似文献
18.
Luisa Gagliardi 《Research Policy》2019,48(6):1523-1533
This paper analyses how differences in the industry composition of British local labour markets moderate the impact of foreign technological competition in manufacturing on domestic employment, both overall and across subsamples of workers with different skill levels (high, intermediate and low). To this scope, it exploits both variations across industries in the exposure to the introduction of new technologies, and information on how such industries are combined in shaping the industrial structure of each place. The analysis shows that places that specialise in industries undergoing substantial technological competition due to foreign innovation experience a reduction in total employment that is 4.5% larger than places less exposed based on their initial industry mix. This negative performance is mainly explained by a decrease in the employment opportunities for intermediate-skilled workers. Limited support is found for successful adaptation trajectories over time across British local labour markets. 相似文献
19.
《普罗米修斯》2012,30(2):159-179
The role of the Venetian republic in the history of intellectual property is not well known although the innovations which were later codified into law by the British Crown, and which are usually regarded as heralding the age of intellectual property, were first developed a century before in Venice. This article explores these precursors to the more commonplace understanding of the origins of intellectual property law, and draws some parallels between the current debates about property in knowledge and the time of its first formal emergence some 500 years ago. 相似文献
20.
等电点是蛋白质最重要的物理化学性质之一。目前有多种测定等电点的方法。本文利用最简单的浊度/分光光度法和最先进的毛细管等电点聚焦法分别测定了河南牛皮明胶的等电点，对两种方法进行比较并论证了后一种方法的优势。 相似文献