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C'est au XVHIè siècle, et selon des modalités variables que l'accoucheur apparaît dans les pays d'Europe occidentale. Mais c'est en France sans doute que le rôle de l'Etat est le plus déterminant. Par une campagne de dénigrement systématique, au nom de l'humanité souffrante et de la nécessaire protection des mères et des nouveau‐nés, les administrateurs et les médecins prétendent mettre un terme à l'exercice des accoucheuses traditionnelles, et limiter celui des sages‐femmes. A la routine des matrones, on substitue un corps de doctrine cohérent, et l'on entend faire disparaître les ‘superstitions’ du passé. Le projet serait louable, si le souci humanitaire ne débouchait de fait sur une attaque en règle de la société rurale, dont l'accoucheuse est l'un des supports. Mais l'ambition des médecins et le souci de l'Etat de préserver les populations ne suffisent pas à expliquer l'importance d'un changement qui d'ailleurs ne s'effectue pas partout au même rythme: villes et campagnes, Europe du nord et du sud s'opposent. De fait, l'évolution des pratiques médicales n'est possible que parce que la demande de soins, le besoin de sécurité commençe alors à l'emporter sur toute autre considération. 相似文献
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From the 1730s to the 1760s, the Piedmontese state was characterized by an absolutist ideology supported by lawyers and administrators of bourgeois origin. They ruled the state and insisted on the primacy of public administration over private institutions. Gradually a rigid system of selection was set up based on talent and skills (excluding the notions of birth or seniority). The military schools, especially the Schools of Artillery established in 1739, played a very peculiar role as social laboratory. In fact, the whole Piedmontese army was affected by this complex phenomenon of social integration implied by meritocracy. This can even be observed within the institutions which were most concerned with rank prerogatives, such as the Royal Academy. So the military reform of 1775 was the result of a process which had been going on for quite some time in the Army. 相似文献
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The outstanding events of the years 1988 and 1989 in the field of historical research were the bicentenary of the death of the “enlightened monarch”, Charles III of Spain and that of the French Revolution. Those years were devoted mainly to the Enlightenment ("La llustración” in Spain) and the first phase of revolutionary liberalism, the reform movement and the final death throes of the “ancien régime”, the rise of a new liberal social and political order, with diverse viewpoints certainly as far as the placing of the reform movement within a historical perspective is concerned. Differences exist between those who lay the emphasis on the changes and innovations and those who bring out the weaknesses and limitations of the Enlightenment. Compared to the 70s during which the main priority was given to university reform, the work recently carried out has stressed primary and mass education together with the new educational establishments of the Enlightenment era and the reforms undertaken in the fields of secondary, professional and technical education as well as the new scientific institutions and scientific activity in general. 相似文献
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Ignorance was one of the major blames put upon the medieval clergy by the Protestant Reformation. The new Protestant ministers were supposed to be experts of the Divine Word and had to be able to explain it eloquently. Normally this requisite would have put the theological faculties at the forefront of ecclesiastical policy. But in the Northern Netherlands, the Reformed Church remained cautious, even suspicious, towards a too powerful impact of university training. It refused the monopoly of university examinations for the recruitment to the ministry. The author explains the reasons for this aloofness and shows how it brought about a clear distinction between formal training and individual qualities, the latter being the decisive factor in the admission procedure. This distinction may have contributed to the ideology of merit. 相似文献
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The author describes the way in which candidates entered the higher state administration in the German states during the first half of the nineteenth century. In the Grand‐Duchy of Baden a fifteen‐year training period was introduced in the beginning of the century (secondary education, university studies in law and an apprenticeship, each with a final examination). On the basis of examination documents and personal records it can be proved that the test results were of no importance for the appointment or the further career. The training period and examinations were only there in order to limit the number of candidates for the Civil Service. Appointment and career development of the higher civil servants depended on their practical skills and their relations to the Court, ministers and senior staff. 相似文献
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Marie Huet-Gueye Myriam de Léonardis 《International Review of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft/Revue internationale l'éducation》2009,55(4):367-391
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN SENEGAL: ANALYSING THE REASONS FOR (NON) ENROLMENT – This study focuses on Senegal, where the education system is split between traditional Koranic schools and purportedly “modern” public schools, which have been compulsory since 1990 but which are currently attended by only two-thirds of children eligible to enrol. The article argues that a number of psychosocial factors need to be studied in order to understand this issue fully. By analysing responses gathered from 20 parent-child units, the authors reveal: (a) how parental identity strategies affect how they choose to school their children, and (b) how children’s attitudes are shaped in different ways depending on whether they attend “traditional” or “modern” schools. 相似文献
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Maurice Rouvroy (Hornu, 1879–Saint‐Hubert, 1954) obtained his teacher's degree in 1898, after which he taught for several years at a primary school. Late 1913, Rouvroy was appointed director of the newly founded “Centraal Observa‐tiegesticht” (Central Observation Institution) in Moll in the Province of Antwerp. In the “Centraal Observatiegesticht”, delinquent boys were examined for two to three months to enable the juvenile court to take adequate measures. The pillars of the operation of the “Centraal Observatiegesticht’–which was directed by Rouvroy from 1913 to 1945–were three: continuous and detailed observation, formulation of hypotheses and proposals, and experimental research to supplement the information obtained. The organization of the “Centraal Observatiegesticht” was strongly child‐oriented. Rouvroy introduced the pavilion system, which was marked by a familial character and by a certain form of self‐management. The “Centraal Observatiegesticht’ was constructed like a city with streets, houses and a store. In his conceptions of delinquency, education, and re‐education and in his programme for the care of children with psycho‐social problems, Rouvroy was influenced by experimental pedology and by the New School Movement. 相似文献
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In order to master the social problem of the transient beggars and vagrants, the eighteenth‐century French state promoted the establishment of hôpitaux généraux and dépôts de mendicité. These repressive institutions, bulwarks of the ‘great confinement’, fulfilled various social functions in the regional context. Comparing the findings of recent research on the inmates of these workhouses and asylums the author looks at some promising hypotheses on the nature and functions of these institutions. The numbers, geographical origins and the age and sex structure of the inmates are put into relation with the nature of the local and regional economy. It appears that both the local elites and the begging poor themselves used these institutions differently according to their specific Interests and social conditions. 相似文献
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Albarea Roberto 《International Review of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft/Revue internationale l'éducation》1997,43(1):61-72
This paper presents some of the elements which have been typical of music in different contexts and cultures, and describes an approach to musical phenomena which relates them to the intercultural and interdisciplinary dimension of lifelong education (music considered as a cultural good, an expression form, a field of creativity, an artistic production and an aesthetic experience). From the educational point of view, the aim is to form "multi-musical" individuals. In this framework are set the problem of musical identity and the need to spell out that identity in relation to stereotypes (popular music, classical music, folk music, etc.) and the differing shades of diversity. Particular attention needs to be given to the question of the universals seen in the psychology of music and the configuration of musical phenomena as structures which are organized hierarchically in several dimensions. In short, music in all its forms can help to form a dynamic, pluralist identity in the European context. 相似文献
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