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1.
The aim of the four present experiments was to explore how different schedules of reinforcement influence schedule-induced
behavior, their impact on evaluative ratings given to conditioned stimuli associated with each schedule through evaluative
conditioning, and the transfer of these evaluations through derived stimulus networks. Experiment 1 compared two contrasting
response reinforcement rules (variable ratio [VR], variable interval [VI]). Experiment 2 varied the response to reinforcement
rule between two schedules but equated the outcome to response rate (differential reinforcement of high rate [DRH] vs. VR).
Experiment 3 compared molar and molecular aspects of contingencies of reinforcement (tandem VIVR vs. tandem VRVI). Finally,
Experiment 4 employed schedules that induced low rates of responding to determine whether, under these circumstances, responses
were more sensitive to the molecular aspects of a schedule (differential reinforcement of low rate [DRL] vs. VI). The findings
suggest that the transfer of evaluative functions is determined mainly by differences in response rate between the schedules
and the molar aspects of the schedules. However, when neither schedule was based on a strong response reinforcement rule,
the transfer of evaluative judgments came under the control of the molecular aspects of the schedule. 相似文献
2.
Roger M. Tarpy Jean E. Roberts Stephen E. G. Lea Marie Midgley 《Learning & behavior》1984,12(1):50-54
Previous research has shown that response rates on a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement decrease if a brief response-produced signal is given prior to reward. One explanation is that the signal overshadows the response because it is a better predictor of reinforcement. The S-R overshadowing effect does not occur with variable ratio (VR) schedules, however. Tarpy, Lea, and Midgley (1983) explained this fact by suggesting that the signal functions to enhance the salience of the temporal interval offset on the VI schedule (a characteristic not possessed by VR schedules), which then overshadows the response. In this experiment, the salience of the temporal interval was enhanced in another way: signaled or unsignaled reward was provided to rats responding on either a VI or fixed interval (FI) reward schedule. As predicted, rates were lowest for animals receiving signaled reinforcement on an FI schedule and highest for those receiving unsignaled reinforcement on a VI schedule. 相似文献
3.
In delayed matching-to-sample with pigeons, brief postsample cues signaled different trial outcomes. The normal comparison stimuli followed the cue to remember (R cue). In the comparison-omission procedure, comparison stimuli and reinforcement were omitted following the cue to forget (F cue). In the comparison-substitution procedure, comparison stimuli were replaced by a single stimulus and reinforcement for a single response following the F cue. Infrequent probe trials revealed that F cues disrupted matching, with the amount of accuracy loss dependent on the length of the cue-comparison delay. These results, however, were found only with the comparison-omission procedure (Experiment 1). Replacing the comparison stimuli with another simultaneous (unconditional) discrimination revealed no accuracy loss in F-cue probes (Experiment 2), even though choice latencies were again lengthened by F cues. These results suggest that, while the F cue interferes with performance at the time of a retention test by slowing choices, it also interferes with sample retention. Alternative models of the cuing effect and its apparent dependence on end-of-trial reward are outlined. 相似文献
4.
Reed P 《Learning & behavior》2003,31(2):205-211
The effect of various relationships between a response (an investment made in the context of a game) and an outcome (a return
on the investment) on judgments of the causal effectiveness of the response was examined. In Experiment 1, response rates
and causal judgments were higher for a differential-reinforcement-of-high-rate (DRH) schedule relative to a variable-ratio
(VR) schedule with the same probability of outcome following a response. Response rates were also higher for a DRH than for
a variable-interval schedule matched for reinforcement rate. In Experiment 2, response rates and causal judgments were lower
for a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule relative to a VR schedule with the same probability of outcome following
a response. These results corroborate the view that schedules are a determinant of both response rates and causal judgments,
and that few current theories of causal judgment explicitly predict this pattern of results. 相似文献
5.
W. Kirk Richardson 《Learning & behavior》1976,4(3):231-240
Keypecking of pigeons was studied under differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) and variable-interval (VI) schedules in which the interreinforcement times on the two schedules were equated by a yoking procedure. Each schedule was available for half of every session and a change of schedule was signaled by a change of key color. The value of the DRL schedule was varied from .5 to 300 sec. Response rates were always higher in the VI schedule, but within sessions there was a sharp change in response rate coincident with the change in schedule only under lower schedule values. A group without prior training was tested with a 180-sec schedule value, and it, too, developed a higher response rate during the VI schedule, showing that the effect was not dependent on prior experience under low schedule values. In all conditions except the .5- and 1-sec values of the schedule, the mean proportion of responses emitted during the VI schedule was approximately .85 of the responses emitted during both schedules. The conclusion was that the requirement of a minimum interresponse time for reinforcement may work its effect by determining which responses may occur just prior to the reinforced response and thus receive delayed reinforcement. 相似文献
6.
Louis D. Matzel 《Learning & behavior》1985,13(2):187-193
A series of experiments used food-deprived pigeons to examine several parameters of reinforcement omission in an attempt to control changes of keypeck response measures on a subsequent schedule. In Experiments 1 and 2, the pigeons were tested with a multiple fixed-ratio schedule on which reinforcement was occasionally omitted at the completion of the first component. The duration of the delay occurring in lieu of reinforcement was systematically varied. In Experiment 3, the stimulus that signaled the second component of the schedule was altered to appear either more or less similar to the stimulus that signaled the first component. Two principal results are reported: (1) Response latency decreased and, to a much lesser extent, terminal response rate increased as the delay occurring in lieu of reinforcement decreased; and (2) both latency decrease and response-rate increase were enhanced by a second component stimulus which was similar to the first. The results are evaluated in terms of Amsel’s frustration theory and an analysis by Staddon which suggests that reinforcement inhibits responding. The data appear to support Staddon’s argument that rate increases and latency decreases following reinforcement omission are largely a function of an attenuation of the inhibitory influence of reinforcement, an effect that is enhanced by stimulus generalization. Accordingly, it is proposed that an animal’s response to reinforcement omission is determined by a stimulus complex that minimally includes the omission event and component cues. 相似文献
7.
We explored response rate as a possible mediator of learned stimulus equivalence. Five pigeons were trained to discriminate
four clip art pictures presented during a 10-sec discrete-trial fixed interval (FI) schedule: two paired with a one-pellet
reinforcer, which supported a low rate of responding, and two paired with a nine-pellet reinforcer, which supported a high
rate of responding. After subjects associated one stimulus from each of these pairs with a discriminative choice response,
researchers presented two new clip art stimuli during a 10-sec FI: one trained with a differential reinforcement of low rate
schedule (DRL) after the FI and the other trained with a differential reinforcement of high rate schedule (DRH) after the
FI. Each of the stimuli that were withheld during choice training was later shown to see if the choice responses would transfer
to these stimuli. The results suggest that response rate alone does not mediate learned stimulus equivalence. 相似文献
8.
Steven J. Haggbloom 《Learning & behavior》1980,8(3):424-428
In two differential conditioning experiments, groups of 10 rats each differed with respect to average reward and schedule of reward received in S+. Nonreward (N) occurred on all S? trials. In both experiments, extinction of responding to S? (resistance to discrimination) was extensively regulated by reward sequence and was largely independent of average reward. In Experiment 1, resistance to discrimination was a function of transitions from N to rewarded (R) trials (N-R transitions). In Experiment 2, resistance to discrimination was increased by large reward on the R trial of N-R transitions and decreased by large reward on the R trial of R-N transitions. These schedule effects on resistance to discrimination parallel the effects of comparable schedules on resistance to extinction following partial reinforcement. The results are discussed in terms of sequential theory, reinforcement level theory, and their implications for various schedule manipulations that have previously shown S? behavior to be inversely related to average reward in S+. 相似文献
9.
Masato Ishida 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(3):293-300
When extinction is delayed very long, the superior resistance to extinction of the random schedule group relative to the alternating schedule group disappears (partial reinforcement delayed extinction effect, PRDE). Two experiments assessed the effects of reinforcement/nonreinforcement on Trial 1 on the PRDE. Following extended partial reinforcement acquisition training in a runway, rats received extinction training after a short (1-day) or long (23-day) retention interval. The schedules used in Experiment 1 were: a single-alternation (SA) schedule beginning each day with a rewarded (r) trial, for Group r-SA; an SA schedule beginning with a nonrewarded (n) trial, for Group n-SA; and a random (Rd) schedule, for Group Rd. The schedules and group names used in Experiment 2 were r-SA, Rd, and r-Rd. The results were that (1) rats given r-SA schedules yielded considerable resistance under delayed extinction, (2) those given Rd and r-Rd schedules showed a decline in resistance to extinction over a long retention interval, (3) those given the n-SA schedule showed relatively low resistance at both retention intervals, although retention deficit was not greater than in the case of the Rd schedule, and thus, (4) the PRDE was found in both experiments, although only weakly in Experiment 1. The results indicated that a regularly alternating reward pattern was a more important determinant than was type of reward on Trial 1 for the PRDE. The PRDE due to differential retention deficits among schedules is discussed on the basis of dual-process associative sequential mechanisms and cognitive rule-encoding mechanisms. 相似文献
10.
If, while responding on a variable interval schedule, rats are given a brief cue prior to reward, their response rate is markedly lower than the rate for yoked partners who receive the cue randomly with respect to reward. This signaled-reward phenomenon has been explained in terms of sign tracking. Two experiments reported here replicated the phenomenon and examined sign tracking directly through visual inspection of the animals’ behavior. Although sign tracking did, indeed, occur more in the signaled reward condition, it did not fully account for the difference in response rates. 相似文献
11.
In three experiments, we examined the effects of signaling reinforcement during operant responding in order to illuminate the factors underlying instrumental overshadowing and potentiation effects. Specifically, we examined whether signaling reinforcement produces an enhancement and attentuation of responding when the response-reinforcer correlation is weak and strong, respectively. In Experiment 1, rats responded on variable-ratio (VR) or variable-interval (VI) schedules that were equated for the number of responses emitted per reinforcer. A signal correlated with reinforcement enhanced response rates on the VR schedule, but attenuated response rates were produced by the signal on the VI schedule. In Experiment 2, two groups of rats responded on a VI schedule while the two other groups received a conjoint VI, negative fixed-ratio schedule in which the subjects lost the availability of reinforcements if they emitted high response rates. A reinforcement signal attenuated responding for the simple VI groups but not for the animals given the negative fixed-ratio component, although the signal improved response efficiency in both groups. In Experiment 3, a poor correlation between responding and reinforcement was produced by a VI schedule onto which the delivery of response-independent food was superimposed. A signal for reinforcement initially elevated responding on this schedule, relative to an unsignaled condition; however, this pattern was reversed with further training. In sum, the present experiments provide little support for the view that signaling reinforcement enhances responding when the response-reinforcer correlation is weak and attenuates responding when this correlation is strong. 相似文献
12.
Experiment 1 investigated the behavior of rats trained to leverpress on a concurrent variable ratio (VR) 30 VR-30 schedule with a brief, 500-msec, light occurring at the midpoint of the ratio on one of the levers. Higher response rates were recorded on the lever associated with this stimulus, a finding that paralleled the effect produced by inserting primary reinforcement at the midpoint (i.e., by training on a concurrent VR-30 VR-15 schedule). Similar results were found in Experiment 2 using a concurrent VR-20 VR-20 schedule with a 2-sec visual stimulus presented midway through one of the components. In addition, a brief stimulus inserted midway through the VR-20 component of a concurrent VR-20 VR-10 schedule retarded the development of a difference in response rates between the components relative to a VR-20 VR-10 group lacking the signal. In Experiment 3, multiple VR VR schedules were used. Again, the response rate was higher in the component that had the added stimulus or, for a second group of subjects, on the component with the smaller response requirement. Probe-choice trials revealed a preference for the component that generated the higher rate in both groups. Presenting a stimulus partway through a ratio appears to reduce the effect on response rate and choice of a large ratio value. 相似文献
13.
Robert C. Mellon Theresa M. Leak Stephen Fairhurst John Gibbon 《Learning & behavior》1995,23(3):286-296
A comparison was made of the effects of long-term exposure to fixed-interval reinforcement with unsignaled and with signaled reinforcement omissions. When successive fixed-interval cycles ended in reinforcement, subjects showed a clear “scalloped” response pattern. When reinforcement was omitted, but a brief signal was given in lieu of reinforcement, responding in the next cycle started earlier than it did after reinforcement. When reinforcement was omitted without exteroceptive cues, response rates peaked near the time of reinforcement and then declined to a flat but substantial level. The classicreinforcement-omission effect was observed, in that total responding was greatest after uncued omission, somewhat less after cued omission, and least after reinforcement. However, response rate plotted as a function of time showed that the uncued-omission condition had a very different function from that of the cued-omission or reinforcement conditions. A failed-discrimination account of the omission effect might accommodate the three functions if the discrimination is considered to be a temporal one. The temporal-discrimination account argues that high-rate responding reflects the accumulation of subjective time proximal to the memory of the time of reinforcement. The accumulation resets completely with food reinforcement, incompletely with cues in lieu of reinforcement, and not at all in the absence of cues. 相似文献
14.
In each of two experiments, rats were trained to press the lever in a Skinner box, food reinforcement being available on a variable-interval 60-sec schedule (VI 60). There followed an “exposure phase” for which the levers were removed from the boxes, and then a final test with the levers replaced to assess the effects of the intervening treatment on instrumental responding. Experiment 1 showed that simple exposure to the box reduced the vigor of instrumental performance in comparison with a condition in which food was made available during the exposure phase. Animals which received no exposure treatment also showed a relatively high rate of response. Experiment 2 demonstrated that an exposure treatment in which the occurrence of food is signaled by a light stimulus also leads to a decline in instrumental responding. These results are held to support the notion that associations between the context and the reinforcer serve to energize appetitive instrumental behavior. 相似文献
15.
Charles I. Brooks 《Learning & behavior》1975,3(1):67-72
In Experiment I, rats which had received six partially reinforced runway acquisition trials, with a reward magnitude of 60 sec access to wet mash on rewarded trials, showed less persistent responding over highly massed extinction trials than subjects which had received the same acquisition schedule but reward magnitudes of either 1 or 10 45-mg pellets. In Experiment II, rats which had received six partially reinforced placements into one compartment of a two-compartment box, with 60 sec access to mash on rewarded placements, jumped a hurdle faster to escape nonreward than subjects which had received the same reward schedule but 10 45-mg pellets on rewarded trials. The data supported a primary frustration analysis for reward-magnitude manipulations within brief partial-reinforcement schedules. 相似文献
16.
Peter C. Holland 《Learning & behavior》2014,42(4):365-382
Initially neutral conditioned stimuli paired with food often acquire motivating properties, including serving as secondary reinforcers, enhancing instrumental responding in Pavlovian-instrumental transfer procedures, and potentiating food consumption under conditions of food satiation. Interestingly, cues associated with the cancellation of food and food cues may also potentiate food consumption (e.g., Galarce and Holland, 2009), despite their apparent negative correlations with food delivery. In three experiments with rats, we investigated conditions under which potentiation of feeding by such “interruption stimuIi” (ISs) develops, and some aspects of the content of that learning. Although in all three experiments ISs enhanced food consumption beyond control levels, they were found to act as conditioned inhibitors for anticipatory food cup entry (Experiment 1), to serve as conditioned punishers of instrumental responding (Experiment 2), and to suppress instrumental lever press responding in a Pavlovian instrumental transfer procedure (Experiment 3). Furthermore, when given concurrent choice between different foods, an IS enhanced consumption of the food whose interruption it had previously signaled, but when given a choice between performing two instrumental responses, the IS shifted rats’ choice away from the response that had previously yielded the food whose interruption had been signaled by IS (Experiment 3). Thus, the effects of an IS on appetitive responses were opposite to its effects on consummatory responding. Implications for our understanding of learned incentive motivation and the control of overeating are discussed. 相似文献
17.
Bruce L. Brown Nancy S. Hemmes David A. Coleman Alison Hassin Eva Goldhammer 《Learning & behavior》1982,10(3):365-376
Control of pigeons’ keypecking by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was investigated in the context of a four-component multiple schedule. In each of three experiments, pigeons were exposed to a schedule consisting of two two-component sequences. Discriminative stimuli identifying each sequence were present only in Component 1, which was 4, 6, or 8 sec in duration, while reinforcers could be earned only in Component 2 (30 sec in duration). Control by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was sought during Component 1 by arranging a differential relation between Component 1 cues and schedule of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 1, rate of keypecking during Component 1 varied with the presence and absence of a stimulus-reinforcer contingency. When a contingency was introduced, rate of keypecking increased during the Component 1 cue associated with the availability of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 2, the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was manipulated parametrically by varying the correlation between Component 1 cues and Component 2 schedules of reinforcement. Responding in Component 1 varied as a function of strength of the stimulus-reinforcer contingency. The relatively high rates of Component 1 responding observed in Experiments 1 and 2 pose difficulties for conceptions of stimulus-reinforcer control based on probability of reinforcement. In these two experiments, the stimulus-associated probabilities of reinforcement in Component 1 were invariant at zero. An alternate dimension of stimulus-reinforcer control was explored in Experiment 3, in which Component 1 cues were differentially associated with delay to reinforcement in Component 2, while probability of reinforcement was held constant across components. When the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was in force, rate of responding in Component 1 varied inversely with delay to reinforcement in Component 2. In a quantitative analysis of data from Experiments 2 and 3, relative rate of responding during Component 1 was strongly correlated with two measures of relative delay to reinforcement. 相似文献
18.
Dorothy E. McAllister Wallace R. McAllister Stephen E. Dieter 《Learning & behavior》1976,4(2):204-209
In Experiment I, eight groups of rats (n = 20) were given shuttlebox-avoidance training. Two levels of shock (.3 and 1.6 mA) were combined factorially with two levels of reward (large and small) under both continuous and discontinuous (.75 sec on and 2.00 sec off) shock. Visual situational cues were absent after a shuttle response for the large-reward condition and present for the small-reward condition. Superior performance was obtained with weak rather than strong shock under both reward conditions and with large rather than small reward only under the weak-shock condition. Continuity of shock had no differential effect on performance. Experiment II allowed the conclusion that the reward effect was attributable to a reinforcement mechanism. The data were taken as support for the effective reinforcement theory, which emphasizes the importance in avoidance learning of fear conditioned to situational cues. 相似文献
19.
Pigeons performed a version of delayed matching-to-sample in which different postsample cues signaled different trial outcomes. Cues to remember (R cues) signaled the usual comparison stimuli. Cues to forget (F cues) signaled either cancellation of comparison stimuli (comparison-omission) or presentation of a sample-independent discrimination (comparison-substitution). As assessed by occasional probe trials, F cues decreased matching accuracy during comparison-omission more than during comparison-substitution. The loss in accuracy of matching in F-cue probes was directly related to length of delays during comparison-omission but not during comparison-substitution. Because trials generally terminated in reward during comparison-substitution but not during comparison-omission, these findings were interpreted as suggesting the importance of end-of-trial reinforcement for the maintenance of short-term memory. 相似文献
20.
Homing pigeons were reinforced for emitting a perching response according to differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) schedules. The spacing requirement between successive perchings was progressively increased by 1-sec steps up to 70 sec and then abruptly decreased to 60, 40, and 20 sec. IRT/OP (interresponse time/opportunity) functions were maximal near the time of reinforcement. The coefficients of variation of the IRT distributions (ratio between the interquartile range and median IRT) fluctuated around .32, testifying for equivalent levels of adjustment throughout the critical IRT range. The ratio between reinforced and total IRTs ranged between .90 and .20. These data contrast with the performance of another group of pigeons reinforced for a treadle-pressing response according to DRL schedules (flatter IRT/OP functions, high coefficients of variation, and low efficiencies). Despite these differences in temporal regulation between perching and treadle-pressing DRL, response rates and reinforcement rates followed the same trend in both cases: they decreased as schedule value increased. The DRL perching results are similar to previous results obtained in the same species when perching duration was reinforced. 相似文献