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1.
Spelling pronunciations are hypothesized to be helpful in building up relatively stable phonologically underpinned orthographic representations, particularly for learning words with irregular phoneme-grapheme correspondences. In a four-week computer-based training, the efficacy of spelling pronunciations and previewing the spelling patterns on learning to spell loan words in Dutch, originating from French and English, was examined in skilled and less skilled spellers with varying ages. Reading skills were taken into account. Overall, compared to normal pronunciation, spelling pronunciation facilitated the learning of the correct spelling of irregular words, but it appeared to be no more effective than previewing. Differences between training conditions appeared to fade with older spellers. Less skilled young spellers seemed to profit more from visual examination of the word as compared to practice with spelling pronunciations. The findings appear to indicate that spelling pronunciation and allowing a preview can both be effective ways to learn correct spellings of orthographically unpredictable words, irrespective of age or spelling ability.  相似文献   

2.
Grade two through six elementary school Dutch children were asked to perform a lexical decision task including 90 pseudowords constructed by changing one or two letters in a Dutch word. Subsequently, the children were asked about the meaning of pseudowords they had not crossed out and that they, apparently, had considered to be words. Multiple regression analyses on the lexical decision task showed that the older children were more hindered by the morphemic structure of a pseudoword than by its orthographic neighbors. The younger children, in contrast, were less hindered by the morphemic structure of a pseudoword and more hindered by its orthographic neighbors. Word length was a (small) predictor only for grade 6. Moreover, the answers of the children reflected that in their construction of meanings for the pseudowords they were hindered both by the morphemic structure and by the orthographic neighbors of the pseudowords.  相似文献   

3.
Two groups of undergraduate students, matched for reading skill but differing in spelling ability, participated in three experiments with the aim of exploring the causes of differences in spelling skill in this population. In the first experiment participants were presented with a range of tasks to investigate the possibility that the poor spellers had poorer phonological abilities than the good spellers. No significant differences were observed. In Experiment 2, a lexical decision task was used. The words in the task differed in orthographic neighbourhood size (N) and frequency. Analysis of the latencies revealed effects of frequency and N, but the effect of spelling group was not significant and neither was the interaction with N. Analysis of the errors revealed that the poor spellers made significantly more errors than the good spellers. In Experiment 3 participants were asked to identify the letters in briefly presented words and non‐words. There was a significant effect of stimulus type in favour of words. Poor spellers made more errors in the task than the good spellers, although the difference was restricted to non‐words. Finally, an analysis of the errors made in spelling to dictation by the two groups was carried out. This revealed that the poor spellers were more likely than the good spellers to make errors that were not phonologically plausible and that differed markedly from the target. Overall, the results are interpreted in terms of a partial orthographic representations explanation of poor spelling in good readers.  相似文献   

4.
Skilled reading involves rapid and automatic word recognition. Through a self‐teaching process, phonological decoding during reading is thought to establish the word‐specific representations in memory that support efficient word reading. Much is known about orthographic learning during reading; less is understood about this process during spelling. Here, we compared the degree of orthographic learning that occurs during reading and spelling. Forty‐eight children in Grade 2 practised reading or spelling nonwords within stories. Orthographic learning was measured using spelling recognition, spelling production and word naming tasks. Both readers and spellers showed evidence of orthographic learning; however, spellers outperformed readers on all tasks. Overall, results suggest that spelling sets up a higher quality representation in memory and highlight the importance of spelling in the development of word reading efficiency.  相似文献   

5.
Forty‐eight adults were trained on monosyllabic pseudowords and their meanings and then tested in vocal spelling. The orthographic inconsistency of the rime (e.g. orn, awn for ‘glorn’) and the number of learning trials affected accuracy and response latency in the vocal spelling test. In addition, orthographic typicality as assessed by neighbour statistics predicted item spelling accuracy. Spelling accuracy on orthographically consistent items significantly increased with training, suggesting that unfamiliar monosyllables are not necessarily spelled by reliance on sound–spelling correspondences at the rime level. Analysis of spelling errors revealed that good spellers made more spelling errors containing alternative rime spellings and fewer errors that were phonologically inappropriate than poor spellers.  相似文献   

6.
The objectives of this series of 3 studies were (a) to evaluate whether French-speaking children mainly use phonological mediation in the first stage of reading acquisition in a silent-reading task and (b) to examine the role of phonological processing in the construction of the orthographic lexicon. Forty-eight French children were followed from kindergarten to the end of Grade 2. Their phonological skills were assessed using a semantic categorization task with homophone and visual foils (Study 1); their orthographic skills were assessed using a choice task involving a correct exemplar, a homophone, and a visual foil (Study 2). In the semantic categorization task, the differences between the visual and homophone foils increased with time, as the homophone foils were more and more likely to be chosen. In the orthographic choice task, performance improved with time, but errors were more likely to involve homophone foils. The results obtained by two subgroups of children who differed in their level of orthographic expertise at the end of Grade 2 (Study 3) indicated that, 1 year earlier (at the end of Grade I), the future "expert" spellers were more likely than the future "poor" spellers to use phonological processing in silent reading (semantic categorization task). Moreover, in Grade 1, future expert spellers' phonological skills in reading aloud and in spelling from dictation (pseudoword tasks) were better than those of future poor spellers, and future expert spellers also had better phonological awareness skills at the beginning of the last year of kindergarten. These results suggest that French-speaking children use phonological mediation in silent-reading tasks and that phonological processing contributes to the construction of the orthographic lexicon.  相似文献   

7.
This paper positions the importance of frequency sensitivity in the development of orthographic knowledge throughout childhood and promotes learning to spell as a vehicle which may be used effectively to develop this sensitivity. It is suggested that orthographic knowledge is advanced via a process of ‘frequency sensitivity’ to ‘patterns and sequences’ and ‘rules and regularities’ particular to English orthography and that the process of sensitivity to these coarse grain orthographic patterns is influenced by consistency in sound and by morphological knowledge (knowledge of morphemes; words or word parts that form the smallest unit of meaning in language). A model highlighting the increasing importance of orthography and morphology as reading and spelling development progresses is presented. Discussion of the importance of considering phonology, orthography and morphology throughout literacy development and the relative importance of each is discussed. Distinctions are drawn between the processes involved in children who are good readers and good spellers, children who are good readers and poor spellers, and children who are poor readers and poor spellers. This paper outlines how considering these interrelated and developmentally sensitive contributors to literacy development can contribute to the practice of educational professionals in promoting the development of literacy skills throughout childhood.  相似文献   

8.
The purpose of the study was to determine the degree to which 31 (23 boys and 8 girls) 13-year-old children with learning disabilities from Grades 7, 8, and 9 were comparable to younger (9-year-old) reading- and spelling-matched controls in (a) phonological similarity effects, (b) phonetically based misspellings, and (c) relationships between memory and spelling performance. Children with reading disabilities and reading-recognition-matched controls, subgrouped by spelling ability, were compared on their memory for phonetically similar and dissimilar word lists and types of spelling errors. The results indicate that children with reading disabilities who are matched to younger children on both reading recognition and spelling ability exhibit normal phonological effects on memory and spelling measures. Within each reading group, low spellers produced more semiphonetic errors than high spellers, and high spellers produced more phonetic errors than low spellers. Significant correlations between memory and spelling error measures were more frequent for children with reading disabilities when compared to controls matched on reading and spelling ability. It was concluded that the phonological performance of reading/spelling-matched children with reading disabilities is characterized by an overreliance on phonological codes, whereas their counterparts' performance reflects independent and less generalizable use of phonological substrates across tasks.  相似文献   

9.
The authors analyzed the spellings of 179 U.S. children (age = 3 years, 2 months–5 years, 6 months) who were prephonological spellers, in that they wrote using letters that did not reflect the phonemes in the target items. Supporting the idea that children use their statistical learning skills to learn about the outer form of writing before they begin to spell phonologically, older prephonological spellers showed more knowledge about English letter patterns than did younger prephonological spellers. The written productions of older prephonological spellers were rated by adults as more similar to English words than were the productions of younger prephonological spellers. The older children s spellings were also more wordlike on several objective measures, including length, variability of letters within words, and digram frequency.  相似文献   

10.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which study of Latin might influence high school students' improvement in spelling. Skilled and less skilled spellers who chose to study Latin or other second languages in ninth-grade were given a standardized and an experimental spelling test, which allowed for a comparison of their spelling of words of Latin and Greek origin, both in the fall of their ninth-grade and the spring of their eleventh-grade year. While skilled spellers generally made greater progress than less skilled spellers, the students of Latin did not outperform students of other second languages either on the standardized spelling test or specifically on words of Latin origin. Analysis of errors on the experimental test indicated that certain words of Latin origin were misspelled as frequently by eleventh as by ninth graders; these may have affected the lower rate of improvement on words of Latin origin, in contrast to the words of Greek origin. The results suggest particular ways in which the relationship of spelling proficiency and study of language might be investigated further.  相似文献   

11.
Spelling researchers in the past have disagreed about the meaning of spelling errors for the diagnosis of dyslexia. Many studies have reported that spelling errors of individuals with dyslexia are similar to those of younger children but that they are not deviant or unusual. In this study, spelling errors from the spontaneous writing of 19 adolescents with a history of reading problems and persistent spelling difficulties were analyzed. The poorer spellers in this group made more errors than the better spellers on certain phonological and morphophonological constructions. Specifically, the poorer spellers made a disproportionately large number of errors in their representation of liquid and nasal consonants, especially after vowels, and their spellings of inflections -ed and -s. Even though poor spellers might eventually learn to spell with reasonable phonetic accuracy, their spelling appears to be marked by persistent, intractable difficulties representing specific phonological and morphophonological features of words.  相似文献   

12.
University students who were unexpectedly poor spellers relative to above average spellers revealed less extensive word-specific knowledge in their misspellings but not inferior knowledge of phoneme-grapheme correspondences, indicating that many of their orthographic representations lack word-specific graphemic information. Performance on deceptive nonwords in a printed lexical decision task showed that the poorer spellers did not place particular reliance on word beginnings as the basis for identification. However, because they could classify accurately many words for which they did not know the precise spelling, they may make greater use of partial cues when identifying words. They were also slower at making lexical decisions and slower and more error-prone at making same/different judgments on pairs of common words presented intact or with misordered letters. These effects showed that the poorer spellers were inferior at rapid orthographic analysis. The origin of their disadvantage in orthographic knowledge and orthographic-processing skill was not explained by more limited print exposure.  相似文献   

13.
College students, scoring average to above-average on WRAT-R subscales for reading and spelling, made match/nonmatch judgments on word pairs either on the basis of phonological similarity (a rhyme match) or orthographic similarity (a visual match). Word pairs rhymed and looked similar, rhymed but looked dissimilar, or looked similar but did not rhyme. Word pairs for which a nonmatch decision had to be made, despite similarity in the irrelevant dimension, produced significantly more errors and longer response latencies. Poorer readers were less vulnerable to phonological interference when making visual discriminations, and poorer readers and spellers were more vulnerable to orthographic interference when making rhyme matches. Results showed that a deficiency in phonological coding and an over-reliance upon orthographic coding, often observed in dyslexic children, can also be seen in relatively poor readers and spellers within a normal adult population.  相似文献   

14.
This study investigated the processes that deaf school children use for spelling. Hearing and deaf spellers of two age groups spelled three types of words differing in orthographic transparency (Regular, Morphological and Opaque words). In all groups, words that could be spelled on the basis of phoneme-grapheme knowledge (Regular words) were easier than words that could be spelled only on the basis of lexical orthographic information (Opaque words). Words in which spelling can be derived from morphological information were easier than Opaque words for older deaf and hearing subjects but not for younger subjects. In deaf children, use of phoneme-grapheme knowledge seems to develop with age, but only in those individuals who had intelligible speech. The presence of systematic misspellings indicates that the hearing-impaired youngsters rely upon inaccurate speech representations they derived mainly form lip-reading. The findings thus suggest that deaf subjects's spelling is based on an exploitation of the linguistic regularities represented in the French alphabetic orthography, but that this exploitation is limited by the vagueness of their representations of oral language. These findings are discussed in the light of current developmental models of spelling acquisition.  相似文献   

15.
Deaf people often achieve low levels of reading skills. The hypothesis that the use of phonological codes is associated with good reading skills in deaf readers is not yet fully supported in the literature. We investigated skilled and less skilled adult deaf readers' use of orthographic and phonological codes in reading. Experiment 1 used a masked priming paradigm to investigate automatic use of these codes during visual word processing. Experiment 2 used a serial recall task to determine whether orthographic and phonological codes are used to maintain words in memory. Skilled hearing, skilled deaf, and less skilled deaf readers used orthographic codes during word recognition and recall, but only skilled hearing readers relied on phonological codes during these tasks. It is important to note that skilled and less skilled deaf readers performed similarly in both tasks, indicating that reading difficulties in deaf adults may not be linked to the activation of phonological codes during reading.  相似文献   

16.
Does unexpectedly poor spelling in adults result from inferior visual sequential memory? In one experiment, unexpectedly poor spellers performed significantly worse than better spellers in the immediate reproduction of sequences of visual symbols, but in a second experiment, the effect was not replicated. Poor spellers were also no worse at the immediate recognition of symbol sequences. Overall, the results indicate that inferior visual memory is not characteristic of unexpectedly poor spellers. However, they do have less efficient orthographic processing skill: they were significantly slower and more error prone than better spellers at classifying both regularly and strangely spelt words, as well as at detecting letter transpositions in long words. They can thus be considered as subtly worse word readers than better spellers. While the findings question the notion of unexpectedly poor spelling in relation to normal adults, they provide confirmation of the intimate relationship between reading and spelling processes.  相似文献   

17.
Previous research in alphabetic languages had shown that children learning to write are sensitive to morphological information, and that it serves as a resource that they draw upon as they acquire writing skills. In Chinese as well, sensitivity to morphological and orthographic information had been found to predict children’s ability to read characters. The present study investigated whether raising children’s awareness of the morphemic and orthographic structure of Chinese words would lead to beneficial results in their learning to write Chinese. An experimental group of 144 first graders from two primary schools in Beijing, China were given instruction designed to increase their knowledge of the orthographic and morphological structure of Chinese words. After two semesters, the experimental group’s ability to copy Chinese characters and to write them from memory were both found to be significantly better than a control group. Theoretical implications are discussed, including how writing benefits from the types of linguistic knowledge that underlie lexical storage and retrieval in reading and speech. Educational implications are also discussed, such as how drawing children’s attention to the morphemic components of Chinese words and the systematic features of Chinese orthography provides them with multiple sources of information they may utilize in learning to write.  相似文献   

18.
Spelling performance of students with learning disabilities (LD) was compared with that of same-age normally achieving subjects and younger normally achieving subjects. Subjects with learning disabilities were divided into two groups: poor readers/poor spellers and good readers/poor spellers. A spelling battery was administered that included one task of phoneme-grapheme correspondence rule usage and four tasks of suffix rule usage. The groups with learning disabilities performed significantly below the same-age normally achieving group on all tasks. No significant differences among the two groups with learning disabilities and their achievement-level peers emerged in primary analyses. However, secondary analyses revealed differences in mastery of the past tense spelling rule ed, and in some subskills related to the spelling of words with suffixes. The cognitive-linguistic significance of these results is discussed.  相似文献   

19.
In order to investigate what issues might be important for experimental training research, a group of experienced remedial teachers was asked to evaluate the potential effectiveness of various spelling exercises. After addressing some general questions about spelling exercises for Dutch poor spellers, they made rankings of several sets of exercises on the basis of the expected effectiveness. The teachers had to give their responses based on their own experiences and with a specific child with poor spelling in mind. The results show that the teachers emphasize the importance of providing rules in spelling exercises, but also agree that poor spellers often have serious difficulties in applying these rules in spelling. Furthermore, the rankings show that exercises with a combination of rule-based strategies and showing the whole orthographic pattern of the word are considered to be most effective. Learning to memorize the word without showing the spelling of the word was considered to be the least effective. Surprisingly, individual characteristics of the children did not seem to have any influence on the ranking of the exercises. It is concluded that exploiting the experience and knowledge of teachers may be good, but is only the first step for further research on the effectiveness of exercises for poor spellers.  相似文献   

20.
ABSTRACT

Spelling errors are typically thought of as an effect of a word’s weak orthographic representation in an individual mind. What if existence of spelling errors is a partial cause of effortful orthographic learning and word recognition? We selected words that had homophonic substandard spelling variants of varying frequency (e.g., innocent and inocent occur in 69% and 31% of occurrences of the word, respectively). Conventional spellings were presented for recognition either in context (Experiment 1, eye-tracking sentence reading) or in isolation (Experiment 2, lexical decision). Words elicited longer fixation durations and lexical decision latencies if there was more uncertainty (higher entropy) regarding which spelling is a preferred one. The inhibitory effect of frequency was not modulated by spelling or other reading skill. This finding is in line with theories of learning that predict spelling errors to weaken associations between conventional spellings and the word’s meaning.  相似文献   

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