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1.
Abstract

In this study, we examined the effects of a pre-acclimatization programme on endurance performance at moderate altitude using a resting intermittent hypoxia protocol. The time-trial performance of 11 cyclists was determined at low altitude (600 m). Athletes were randomly assigned in a double-blind fashion to the hypoxia or the control group. The pre-acclimatization programme consisted of seven sessions each lasting 1 h in normobaric hypoxia (inspired fraction of oxygen of 12.5%, equivalent to approximately 4500 m) for the hypoxia group (n = 6) and in normoxia (inspired fraction of oxygen of 20.9%) for the control group (n = 5). The time-trials were repeated at moderate altitude (1970 m). Mean power output during the time-trial at moderate altitude was decreased in the hypoxia group (?0.26 ± 0.11 W · kg?1) and in the control group (?0.13 ± 0.04 W · kg?1) compared with at low altitude but did not differ between groups (P = 0.13). Our results suggest that the applied protocol of intermittent hypoxia had no positive effect on endurance performance at moderate altitude. Whether different intermittent hypoxia protocols are advantageous remains to be determined.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract

The aims of this study were to compare the physiological demands of laboratory- and road-based time-trial cycling and to examine the importance of body position during laboratory cycling. Nine male competitive but non-elite cyclists completed two 40.23-km time-trials on an air-braked ergometer (Kingcycle) in the laboratory and one 40.23-km time-trial (RD) on a local road course. One laboratory time-trial was conducted in an aerodynamic position (AP), while the second was conducted in an upright position (UP). Mean performance speed was significantly higher during laboratory trials (UP and AP) compared with the RD trial (P < 0.001). Although there was no difference in power output between the RD and UP trials (P > 0.05), power output was significantly lower during the AP trial than during both the RD (P = 0.013) and UP trials (P = 0.003). Similar correlations were found between AP power output and RD power output (r = 0.85, P = 0.003) and between UP power output and RD power output (r = 0.87, P = 0.003). Despite a significantly lower power output in the laboratory AP condition, these results suggest that body position does not affect the ecological validity of laboratory-based time-trial cycling.  相似文献   

3.
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4.
Abstract

Following fixed-duration exercise of submaximal intensity, caffeine ingestion is associated with an attenuation of the exercise-induced decline in N-formyl-methionyl-phenyl-alanine (f-MLP) stimulated neutrophil oxidative burst. However, the response following high-intensity exhaustive exercise is unknown. Nine endurance-trained male cyclists ingested 6 mg caffeine or placebo per kilogram of body mass 60 min before cycling for 90 min at 70% of maximal oxygen consumption ([Vdot]O2max) and then performing a time-trial requiring an energy expenditure equivalent to 30 min cycling at 70% maximum power output. Time-trial performance was 4% faster in the caffeine than in the placebo trial (P = 0.043). Caffeine was associated with an increased plasma adrenaline concentration after 90 min of exercise (P = 0.046) and immediately after the time-trial (P = 0.02). Caffeine was also associated with an increased serum caffeine concentration (P < 0.01) after 90 min of exercise and immediately after the time-trial, as well as 1 h after the time-trial. However, the f-MLP-stimulated neutrophil oxidative burst response fell after exercise in both trials (P = 0.002). There was no effect of caffeine on circulating leukocyte or neutrophil counts, but the lymphocyte count was significantly lower on caffeine (20%) after the time-trial (P = 0.003). Our results suggest that high-intensity exhaustive exercise negates the attenuation of the exercise-induced decrease in neutrophil oxidative burst responses previously observed when caffeine is ingested before exercise of fixed duration and intensity. This may be associated with the greater increase in adrenaline concentration observed in the present study.  相似文献   

5.
This study adopted a multidimensional approach to performance prediction within Olympic distance cross-country mountain biking (XCO-MTB). Twelve competitive XCO-MTB cyclists (VO2max 60.8 ± 6.7 ml · kg?1 · min?1) completed an incremental cycling test, maximal hand grip strength test, cycling power profile (maximal efforts lasting 6–600 s), decision-making test and an individual XCO-MTB time-trial (34.25 km). A hierarchical approach using multiple linear regression analyses was used to develop predictive models of performance across 10 circuit subsections and the total time-trial. The strongest model to predict overall time-trial performance achieved prediction accuracy of 127.1 s across 6246.8 ± 452.0 s (adjusted R2 = 0.92; P < 0.01). This model included VO2max relative to total cycling mass, maximal mean power across 5 and 30 s, peak left hand grip strength, and response time for correct decisions in the decision-making task. A range of factors contributed to the models for each individual subsection of the circuit with varying predictive strength (adjusted R2: 0.62–0.97; P < 0.05). The high prediction accuracy for the total time-trial supports that a multidimensional approach should be taken to develop XCO-MTB performance. Additionally, individual models for circuit subsections may help guide training practices relative to the specific trail characteristics of various XCO-MTB circuits.  相似文献   

6.
Abstract

The aims of this study were to examine the use of the critical velocity test as a means of predicting 2000-m rowing ergometer performance in female collegiate rowers, and to study the relationship of selected physiological variables on performance times. Thirty-five female collegiate rowers (mean ± s: age 19.3 ± 1.3 years; height 1.70 ± 0.06 m; weight 69.5 ± 7.2 kg) volunteered to participate in the study. Rowers were divided into two categories based on rowing experience: varsity (more than 1 year collegiate experience) and novice (less than 1 year collegiate experience). All rowers performed two continuous graded maximal oxygen consumption tests (familiarization and baseline) to establish maximal oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2max), peak power output, and power output at ventilatory threshold. Rowers then completed a critical velocity test, consisting of four time-trials at various distances (400 m, 600 m, 800 m, and 1000 m) on two separate days, with 15 min rest between trials. Following the critical velocity test, rowers completed a 2000-m time-trial. Absolute [Vdot]O2max was the strongest predictor of 2000-m performance (r = 0.923) in varsity rowers, with significant correlations also observed for peak power output and critical velocity (r = 0.866 and r = 0.856, respectively). In contrast, critical velocity was the strongest predictor of 2000-m performance in novice rowers (r = 0.733), explaining 54% of the variability in performance. These findings suggest the critical velocity test may be more appropriate for evaluating performance in novice rowers.  相似文献   

7.
This investigation examined the effect of beetroot juice (BR) supplementation, a source of dietary nitrate (NO3?), on cycling time-trial (TT) performance and thermoregulation in the heat. In a double-blind, repeated-measures design, 12 male cyclists (age 26.6 ± 4.4 years, VO2peak 65.8 ± 5.5 mL.kg?1.min?1) completed four cycling TTs (14 kJ.kg?1) in hot (35°C, 48% relative humidity) and euthermic (21°C, 52%) conditions, following 3 days supplementation with BR (6.5 mmol NO3? for 2 days and 13 mmol NO3? on the final day), or NO3–depleted placebo (PLA). Salivary NO3? and nitrite, core (Tc) and mean skin temperature (Tsk) were measured. Salivary NO3? and nitrite increased significantly post-BR supplementation (p < 0.001). Average TT completion time (mm:ss) in hot conditions was 56:50 ± 05:08 with BR, compared with 58:30 ± 04:48 with PLA (p = 0.178). In euthermic conditions, average completion time was 53:09 ± 04:35 with BR, compared with 54:01 ± 04:05 with PLA (p = 0.380). The TT performance decreased (p < 0.001), and Tc (p < 0.001) and Tsk (p < 0.001) were higher in hot compared with euthermic conditions. In summary, BR supplementation has no significant effect on cycling TT performance in the heat.  相似文献   

8.
This review evaluated the effects of precooling via cold water immersion (CWI) and ingestion of ice slurry/slushy or crushed ice (ICE) on endurance performance measures (e.g. time-to-exhaustion and time trials) and psychophysiological parameters (core [Tcore] and skin [Tskin] temperatures, whole body sweat [WBS] response, heart rate [HR], thermal sensation [TS], and perceived exertion [RPE]). Twenty-two studies were included in the meta-analysis based on the following criteria: (i) cooling was performed before exercise with ICE or CWI; (ii) exercise longer than 6?min was performed in ambient temperature ≥26°C; and (iii) crossover study design with a non-cooling passive control condition. CWI improved performance measures (weighted average effect size in Hedges’ g [95% confidence interval]?+?0.53 [0.28; 0.77]) and resulted in greater increase (ΔEX) in Tskin (+4.15 [3.1; 5.21]) during exercise, while lower peak Tcore (?0.93 [?1.18; ?0.67]), WBS (?0.74 [?1.18; ?0.3]), and TS (?0.5 [?0.8; ?0.19]) were observed without concomitant changes in ΔEX-Tcore (+0.19 [?0.22; 0.6]), peak Tskin (?0.67 [?1.52; 0.18]), peak HR (?0.14 [?0.38; 0.11]), and RPE (?0.14 [?0.39; 0.12]). ICE had no clear effect on performance measures (+0.2 [?0.07; 0.46]) but resulted in greater ΔEX-Tcore (+1.02 [0.59; 1.45]) and ΔEX-Tskin (+0.34 [0.02; 0.67]) without concomitant changes in peak Tcore (?0.1 [?0.48; 0.28]), peak Tskin (+0.1 [?0.22; 0.41]), peak HR (+0.08 [?0.19; 0.35]), WBS (?0.12 [?0.42; 0.18]), TS (?0.2 [?0.49; 0.1]), and RPE (?0.01 [?0.33; 0.31]). From both ergogenic and thermoregulatory perspectives, CWI may be more effective than ICE as a precooling treatment prior to exercise in the heat.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract

There is little published data in relation to the effects of caffeine upon cycling performance, speed and power in trained cyclists, especially during cycling of ～60 s duration. To address this, eight trained cyclists performed a 1 km time-trial on an electronically braked cycle ergometer under three conditions: after ingestion of 5 mg · kg?1 caffeine, after ingestion of a placebo, or a control condition. The three time-trials were performed in a randomized order and performance time, mean speed, mean power and peak power were determined. Caffeine ingestion resulted in improved performance time (caffeine vs. placebo vs. control: 71.1 ± 2.0 vs. 73.4 ± 2.3 vs. 73.3 ± 2.7 s; P = 0.02; mean ± s). This change represented a 3.1% (95% confidence interval: 0.7–5.6) improvement compared with the placebo condition. Mean speed was also higher in the caffeine than placebo and control conditions (caffeine vs. placebo vs. control: 50.7 ± 1.4 vs. 49.1 ± 1.5 vs. 49.2 ± 1.7 km · h?1; P = 0.0005). Mean power increased after caffeine ingestion (caffeine vs. placebo vs. control: 523 ± 43 vs. 505 ± 46 vs. 504 ± 38 W; P = 0.007). Peak power also increased from 864 ± 107 W (placebo) and 830 ± 87 W (control) to 940 ± 83 W after caffeine ingestion (P = 0.027). These results provide support for previous research that found improved performance after caffeine ingestion during short-duration high-intensity exercise. The magnitude of the improvements observed in our study could be due to our use of sport-specific ergometry, a tablet form and trained participants.  相似文献   

10.
This study aimed to describe the effect of compression garments on middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity (MCAv) in relation to cognitive and exercise performance whilst cycling. In a randomised-controlled-cross-over design, 15 well-trained male cyclists were recruited to participate in three identical trials wearing loose fitting shorts (control), low-grade, or medium-grade compression garments. The protocol involved four 8?min increments of cycling at 30%, 50%, 70%, and 85% maximal power output and a 4?km time-trial. Participants undertook a cognitive Stroop task at baseline and at the midpoint of each increment. MCAv was monitored with Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and partial pressure of end-tidal CO2 (PetCO2) were measured throughout. MCAv, MAP, PetCO2, and reaction time of the complex Stroop task were influenced by exercise intensity, but not compression garments. Compression garments significantly affected cognitive accuracy in the complex Stroop task such that low-grade compression appeared to enhance cognitive accuracy in comparison to the control condition at the highest intensity (p?=?.010). Time-trial performance did not differ between the control (338.0?±?17.3 s), low-grade (338.7?±?18.7 s), or medium-grade (342.2?±?19.3 s) conditions (p?=?.114). Compression garments did not affect MCAv during exercise or time-trial performance, but compression may be beneficial for improved cognitive accuracy during high-intensity exercise. Further research is required to elucidate the potential impact on cognitive performance.  相似文献   

11.
Abstract

The aims of this study were to determine if the primary time constant (τ) for oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2) at the onset of moderate-intensity treadmill exercise is related to endurance running performance, and to establish if τ could be considered a determinant of endurance running performance. Thirty-six endurance trained male runners performed a series of laboratory tests, on separate days, to determine maximal oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2max), the ventilatory threshold (VT) and running economy. In addition, runners completed six transitions from walking (4 km · h?1) to moderate-intensity running (80% VT) for the determination of the [Vdot]O2 primary time constant and mean response time. During all tests, pulmonary gas-exchange was measured breath-by-breath. Endurance running performance was determined using a treadmill 5-km time-trial, after which runners were considered as combined performers (n=36) and, using a ranking system, high performers (n=10) and low performers (n=10). Relationships between τ and endurance running performance were quantified using correlation coefficients (r). Stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the primary predictor variables of endurance running performance in combined performers. Moderate correlations were observed between τ, mean response time and endurance running performance, but only for the combined performers (r=?0.55, P=0.001 and r=?0.50, P=0.002, respectively). The regression model for predicting 5-km performance did not include τ or mean response time. The velocity at [Vdot]O2max was strongly correlated to endurance running performance in all groups (r=0.72 – 0.84, P < 0.01) and contributed substantially to the prediction of performance. In conclusion, the results suggest that despite their role in determining the oxygen deficit and having a moderate relationship with endurance running performance, neither τ nor mean response time is a primary determinant of endurance running performance.  相似文献   

12.
The pre-event warm-up or “priming” routine for optimising cycling performance is not well-defined or uniform to a specific event. We aimed to determine the effects of varying the intensity of priming on 3 km cycling performance. Ten endurance-trained male cyclists completed four 3 km time-trials (TT) on four separate occasions, each preceded by a different priming strategy including “self-selected” priming and three intermittent priming strategies incorporating 10 min of constant-load cycling followed by 5 × 10 s bouts of varying relative intensity (100% and 150% of peak aerobic power, Wpeak, and all-out priming). The self-selected priming trial (379 ± 44 W) resulted in similar mean power during the 3 km TT to intermittent priming at 100% (376 ± 45 W; ?0.7%; unclear) and 150% (374 ± 48 W; ?1.5%, unclear) of Wpeak, but significantly greater than all-out priming (357 ± 45 W; ?5.8%, almost certainly harmful). Differences between intermittent and self-selected priming existed with regards to heart rate (6.2% to 11.5%), blood lactate (?22.9% to 125%) and VO2 kinetics (?22.9% to 8.2%), but these were not related to performance outcomes. In conclusion, prescribed intermittent priming strategies varying in intensity did not substantially improve 3 km TT performance compared to self-selected priming.  相似文献   

13.
Abstract

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of a carbohydrate mouthwash on running time-trial performance. On two separate occasions, seven recreationally active males ([Vdot]O2max 57.8 ml · kg?1 · min?1, s = 3.7) completed a preloaded (15 min at 65%[Vdot]O2max) time-trial of 45 min in duration on a motorized treadmill. At 6-min intervals during the preload and time-trial, participants were given either a 6% maltodextrin, 3% lemon juice solution (carbohydrate trial) or a 3% lemon juice placebo mouthwash (placebo trial) in a double-blind, randomized crossover design. Heart rate, oxygen consumption ([Vdot]O2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured during the preload, and blood glucose and lactate were measured before and after the preload and time-trial. There were no significant differences in distance covered between trials (carbohydrate: 9333 m, s = 988; placebo: 9309 m, s = 993). Furthermore, there were no significant between-trial differences in heart rate and running speed during the time-trial, or [Vdot]O2, RER or RPE during the preload. Blood lactate and glucose increased as a result of the exercise protocol, with no between-trial differences. In conclusion, there was no positive effect of a carbohydrate mouthwash on running performance of ～1 h duration.  相似文献   

14.
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between mechanical power, thrust power, propelling efficiency and sprint performance in elite swimmers. Mechanical power was measured in 12 elite sprint male swimmers: (1) in the laboratory, by using a whole-body swimming ergometer (W'TOT) and (2) in the pool, by measuring full tethered swimming force (FT) and maximal swimming velocity (Vmax): W'T = FT · Vmax. Propelling efficiency (ηP) was estimated based on the “paddle wheel model” at Vmax. Vmax was 2.17 ± 0.06 m · s?1, ηP was 0.39 ± 0.02, W'T was 374 ± 62 W and W'TOT was 941 ± 92 W. Vmax was better related to W'T (useful power output: R = 0.943, P < 0.001) than to W'TOT (total power output: R = 0.744, P < 0.01) and this confirms the use of the full tethered test as a valid test to assess power propulsion in sprinters and to estimate swimming performance. The ratio W'T/W'TOT (0.40 ± 0.04) represents the fraction of total mechanical power that can be utilised in water (e.g., ηP) and was indeed the same as that estimated based on the “paddle wheel model”; this supports the use of this model to estimate ηP in swimming.  相似文献   

15.
Abstract

Glutamine enhances the exercise-induced expansion of the tricarboxylic acid intermediate pool. The aim of the present study was to determine whether oral glutamine, alone or in combination with hyperoxia, influenced oxidative metabolism and cycle time-trial performance. Eight participants consumed either placebo or 0.125 g · kg body mass?1 of glutamine in 5 ml · kg body mass?1 placebo 1 h before exercise in normoxic (control and glutamine respectively) or hyperoxic (FiO2 = 50%; hyperoxia and hyperoxia + glutamine respectively) conditions. Participants then cycled for 6 min at 70% maximal oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2max) immediately before completing a brief high-intensity time-trial (～4 min) during which a pre-determined volume of work was completed as fast as possible. The increment in pulmonary oxygen uptake during the performance test (Δ[Vdot]O2max, P = 0.02) and exercise performance (control: 243 s, s x  = 7; glutamine: 242 s, s x  = 3; hyperoxia: 231 s, s x  = 3; hyperoxia + glutamine: 228 s, s x  = 5; P < 0.01) were significantly improved in hyperoxic conditions. There was some evidence that glutamine ingestion increased Δ[Vdot]O2max in normoxia, but not hyperoxia (interaction drink/FiO2, P = 0.04), but there was no main effect or impact on performance. Overall, the data show no effect of glutamine ingestion either alone or in combination with hyperoxia, and thus no limiting effect of the tricarboxylic acid intermediate pool size, on oxidative metabolism and performance during maximal exercise.  相似文献   

16.
We compared the effects of using passive-heat maintenance, explosive activity or a combination of both strategies during the post-warmup recovery time on physical performance. After a standardised warmup, 16 professional rugby union players, in a randomised design, completed a counter-movement jump (peak power output) before resting for 20 min and wearing normal-training attire (CON), wearing a passive heat maintenance (PHM) jacket, wearing normal attire and performing 3 × 5 CMJ (with a 20% body mass load) after 12 min of recovery (neuromuscular function, NMF), or combining PHM and NMF (COMB). After 20 min, participants completed further counter-movement jump and a repeated sprint protocol. Core temperature (Tcore) was measured at baseline, post-warmup and post-20 min. After 20 min of recovery, Tcore was significantly lower under CON and NMF, when compared with both PHM and COMB (P < 0.05); PHM and COMB were similar. Peak power output had declined from post-warmup under all conditions (P < 0.001); however, the drop was less in COMB versus all other conditions (P < 0.05). Repeated sprint performance was significantly better under COMB when compared to all other conditions. Combining PHM with NMF priming attenuates the post-warmup decline in Tcore and can positively influence physical performance in professional rugby union players.  相似文献   

17.
Abstract

To develop a track version of the maximal anaerobic running test, 10 sprint runners and 12 distance runners performed the test on a treadmill and on a track. The treadmill test consisted of incremental 20-s runs with a 100-s recovery between the runs. On the track, 20-s runs were replaced by 150-m runs. To determine the blood lactate versus running velocity curve, fingertip blood samples were taken for analysis of blood lactate concentration at rest and after each run. For both the treadmill and track protocols, maximal running velocity (v max), the velocities associated with blood lactate concentrations of 10 mmol · l?1 ( v 10 mM) and 5 mmol · l?1 ( v 5 mM), and the peak blood lactate concentration were determined. The results of both protocols were compared with the seasonal best 400-m runs for the sprint runners and seasonal best 1000-m time-trials for the distance runners. Maximal running velocity was significantly higher on the track (7.57 ± 0.79 m · s?1) than on the treadmill (7.13 ± 0.75 m · s?1), and sprint runners had significantly higher v max, v 10 mM, and peak blood lactate concentration than distance runners (P<0.05). The Pearson product – moment correlation coefficients between the variables for the track and treadmill protocols were 0.96 (v max), 0.82 (v 10 mM), 0.70 (v 5 mM), and 0.78 (peak blood lactate concentration) (P<0.05). In sprint runners, the velocity of the seasonal best 400-m run correlated positively with v max in the treadmill (r = 0.90, P<0.001) and track protocols (r = 0.92, P<0.001). In distance runners, a positive correlation was observed between the velocity of the 1000-m time-trial and v max in the treadmill (r = 0.70, P<0.01) and track protocols (r = 0.63, P<0.05). It is apparent that the results from the track protocol are related to, and in agreement with, the results of the treadmill protocol. In conclusion, the track version of the maximal anaerobic running test is a valid means of measuring different determinants of sprint running performance.  相似文献   

18.
Abstract

Power output and heart rate were monitored for 11 months in one female ([Vdot]O2max: 71.5 mL · kg?1 · min?1) and ten male ([Vdot]O2max: 66.5 ± 7.1 mL · kg?1 · min?1) cyclists using SRM power-meters to quantify power output and heart rate distributions in an attempt to assess exercise intensity and to relate training variables to performance. In total, 1802 data sets were divided into workout categories according to training goals, and power output and heart rate intensity zones were calculated. The ratio of mean power output to respiratory compensation point power output was calculated as an intensity factor for each training session and for each interval during the training sessions. Variability of power output was calculated as a coefficient of variation. There was no difference in the distribution of power output and heart rate for the total season (P = 0.15). Significant differences were observed during high-intensity workouts (P < 0.001). Performance improvements across the season were related to low-cadence strength workouts (P < 0.05). The intensity factor for intervals was related to performance (P < 0.01). The variability in power output was inversely associated with performance (P < 0.01). Better performance by cyclists was characterized by lower variability in power output and higher exercise intensities during intervals.  相似文献   

19.
ABSTRACT

This study aimed to assess the relationship between an uphill time-trial (TT) performance and both aerobic and anaerobic parameters obtained from laboratory tests. Fifteen cyclists performed a Wingate anaerobic test, a graded exercise test (GXT) and a field-based 20-min TT with 2.7% mean gradient. After a 5-week non-supervised training period, 10 of them performed a second TT for analysis of pacing reproducibility. Stepwise multiple regressions demonstrated that 91% of TT mean power output variation (W kg?1) could be explained by peak oxygen uptake (ml kg?1.min?1) and the respiratory compensation point (W kg?1), with standardised beta coefficients of 0.64 and 0.39, respectively. The agreement between mean power output and power at respiratory compensation point showed a bias ± random error of 16.2 ± 51.8 W or 5.7 ± 19.7%. One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed a significant effect of the time interval (123.1 ± 8.7; 97.8 ± 1.2 and 94.0 ± 7.2% of mean power output, for epochs 0–2, 2–18 and 18–20 min, respectively; P < 0.001), characterising a positive pacing profile. This study indicates that an uphill, 20-min TT-type performance is correlated to aerobic physiological GXT variables and that cyclists adopt reproducible pacing strategies when they are tested 5 weeks apart (coefficients of variation of 6.3; 1 and 4%, for 0–2, 2–18 and 18–20 min, respectively).  相似文献   

20.
ABSTRACT

Previous studies have been limited to describe asymmetries during pedalling and suggest possible repercussion on performance and/or injury risks. However, few studies have presented strategies to mitigate asymmetries. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a pedalling retraining intervention to reduce bilateral pedal force asymmetries. Twenty cyclists were assessed and 10 enrolled in a pedalling retraining method receiving visual and verbal feedback of pedal forces. The asymmetry index was computed for comparison of bilateral peak pedal forces and used during retraining (12 trials at 70% of peak power). Significantly larger asymmetry was observed for asymmetrical cyclists at the first three trials (P < 0.01 and ES = 1.39), which was reduced when post-retraining was compared to measures from symmetrical cyclists (P = 0.69 and ES = 0.18). Cyclists with larger asymmetry (>20%) in bilateral pedal forces reduce their asymmetries using sessions of pedalling retraining and achieve asymmetry indices similar to symmetrical cyclists.  相似文献   

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