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1.
Abstract

Private extension system has been at the centre of a debate triggered by inefficient public agricultural extension. The debate is anchored on the premise that the private sector is more efficient in extension service delivery. This study evaluates the private extension system in Kenya. It employs qualitative and quantitative methods. The results indicate that the private extension is skewed towards high potential regions because it is either driven by profits or quick results. The private system benefits from the public extension staff, thus some form of commercial contracting of public staff to serve the private systems is appropriate. Public extension should not overlap in the areas efficiently served by the private system. The government should consider contracting the private sector to deliver extension to neglected areas. The government has a role in extension services funding, quality control, arbitration, monitoring and in provision of quality infrastructure to lower private sector players’ costs.  相似文献   

2.
Public agricultural extension services around the world are being pressured to adapt to new funding constraints and a changing agricultural sector. The global perspective on extension is no longer that of a unified public sector service, but of a multi-institutional network of knowledge and information support for rural people. This reality and its ensuing issues were discussed at an international workshop on ‘Extension and Rural Development’, sponsored by the World Bank and the U.S. Agency for International Development, in collaboration with the Neuchâtel Group, and held in November 2002 in the IFPRI headquarters in Washington, DC. One output of the workshop was the compilation of 44 edited case studies organized into sections as follows: (1) decentralization systems, (2) privatization of extension systems, (3) demand-driven approaches to agricultural extension, (4) revitalization within public sector services, and (5) national strategy and reform process. The case studies portray extension within the context of a wide rural development agenda; their composite view of extension recognizes the need for a sophisticated and differentiated set of services. From the policy standpoint it implies that governments need to act to redefine extension and implement coherent extension policies to advance pluralistic systems of extension providers. The authors believe that policymakers and extension practitioners and those in related disciplines will find the result of the World Bank/USAID/Neuchatel workshop relevant to the design of future reforms.  相似文献   

3.
Abstract

Purpose: This review paper presents an overview of changes in agricultural extension on a global scale and helps to characterise on-going developments in extension practice.

Design/methodology/approach: Through a critique and synthesis of literature the paper focuses on global political changes which have led to widespread changes from production- to market-oriented extension systems and goes on to discuss pressures on unsustainable public extension systems to reform.

Findings: It is estimated that there are over 800,000 official extension personnel globally, most of whom work in the public sector in developing countries. This review highlights the important consequences for developing countries of global extension reform and the high percentages of farmers reliant on agriculture, making effective agricultural extension a key strategy in tackling poverty and strengthening rural development. It outlines the manner in which governments around the globe have experimented with alternative approaches to extension reform, such as privatisation and cooperatives, and demonstrates how public sector extension has come to be viewed as problematic.

Practical implications: This paper identifies the practical realities of adopting alternative approaches to extension, especially in the context of poverty. It considers the challenges in reforming extension to act as facilitator and enabler, rather than as service provider, and the difficulties in moving towards reforms that promote pluralism and innovation.

Originality/value: This paper contributes to current global debates on reforming agricultural extension by providing learning of how extension services have changed. The paper provides new insights from which lessons can be drawn for future extension reform.  相似文献   

4.
Following the economic reforms in the early 90's, most of the south-eastern European countries (SEE) made efforts to establish agricultural extension services. However, a number of factors including tight governmental budgets, lack of experience, and the existence of vested interests have constrained the development of extension services. This paper examines the rationale for public funding of extension programs and evaluates the incentive structure for private and public provision of agricultural extension service in the SEE countries. It suggests a medium and long-term approach with a primary focus on institutional design. Two groups of factors that affect the private sector supply of extension are analyzed: (i) demand and supply-side factors that affect the profitability of the service and (ii) factors arising from the public-good nature of extension output, externalities, and moral hazards that affect the appropriation of returns of the service. The main conclusion is that the SEE countries should try to achieve a public-private extension balance by following a gradual approach toward privatization of the agricultural extension service. However, the paper advocates a continued important role for the public sector to correct for potential undesirable effects of private advisory services.  相似文献   

5.
Abstract

This study assessed farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for extension services. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was used to assess the amount which farmers are willing to pay. Primary data on the demographic, socio-economic variables of farmers and their WTP were collected from 228 farmers selected randomly in a stage-wise sampling procedure from the Oyo State, Nigeria. The data were summarized using frequency distribution while CVM, commonly used by natural resource economists to assess the willingness of the public to part-fund proposed projects, was used to determine the amount which farmers are willing to pay. Results of the analysis showed that the majority of farmers described themselves as having the ability to pay for services and are willing to pay if their income from farming would increase and the programmes be made relevant to them. They also want to pay through cooperative societies. The CVM result showed that the Lower Bound Mean (LBM) of amount which farmers are willing to pay for extension is N391.47 per farmer per year. The study concluded that there is a challenge to extension specialists to make programmes participatory and farmers relevant if farmers are to be charged with the responsibility of participating in financing agricultural extension services.  相似文献   

6.
Books Received     
Abstract

This paper analyses the organizational, financial and technological incentives that service organizations used to motivate farmers to finance agricultural research and extension in Benin. Understanding the foundations and implications of these motivation systems is important for improving farmer financial participation in agricultural research and extension.

We studied three cases of farmer financial participation in the field of agricultural research and extension in Benin. We conducted semi-structured interviews with leaders of service organizations and farmers’ associations, local authorities and individual farmers. Our interviews focused on service delivery systems, mechanisms of farmers’ financial contribution, the functioning of farmers’ associations, and the appropriateness of services provided. We performed thematic and comparative analyses at the interfaces between (1) service providers and partner–farmer associations, (2) service providers and delivered services, and (3) farmers/farmers’ associations and services.

Incentives for farmer financial participation are the increasing participation strategy, the fulfillment of farmers’ needs and the local leadership valorization. The selection and combination of their variants determine the motivating capacity and orientation of service organizations. Conversely to the increasing participation strategy, an effective fulfillment of farmers’ needs and local leadership valorization can lead to sustainable motivation. As the fulfillment of farmers’ needs determines importantly the effectiveness and sustainability of farmers’ motivation, the strategies of farmer financial participation are likely to fail if there are no successful agricultural technological incentives.

In the current context of privatization of agricultural services in developing countries, this analytical framework is of interest for policy makers and development workers for identifying conditions of farmer financial participation and designing effective motivation strategies.  相似文献   

7.
The emergence of Management Advice for Family Farms in West Africa is closely related to the increased integration of farmers into an open market economy. This is creating a strong demand from farmers for advisory support services, focusing on management of the farm. With the gradual withdrawal of the State from extension services delivery, a stimulating context exists for reviewing approaches and systems of support delivery facilities for producers. In response to these developments, several experiments based on the concepts of Management Advice for Family Farms are going on in West Africa. Beyond a variety of objectives and implementation procedures analysed in this paper, common features and a considerable degree of consensus on concepts emerge. Strengthening the producers' capacity for assessment, decision-making, and management of their farms is a common objective. Differences exist between procedures for delivery of advice, methods, tools used, and emphasis put on different aspects of management. All experiments stress the importance of training, enhancing group dynamics, and individual learning. They are all farmer and farm family targeted. Expression of farmers' objectives, needs, and demands is essential. Advice is based on data gathering and assessment by the farmers themselves. From mere technicians, extension workers become advisors and facilitators. In all cases, Farmers' Organisations are involved in governing the delivery services, though at different degrees. In several cases priority is given towards strengthening farmers' capacity in the management of delivery at both local and global levels. Significant improvements in farm performances have been reported. Cost sharing is generally accepted, but insufficient to cover all costs. However, to reach sustainability for farmers' driven and governed advice delivery services, innovative agricultural policies, and public finance are needed.  相似文献   

8.
The main function of agricultural extension is generally thought to be the transfer through nonformal educational means of practical knowledge to agriculture and the enhancement of rural development. Agricultural extension has received renewed attention in recent years from international development agencies and considerable discussion has ensued regarding the appropriate role for extension programmes. Much of the attention has been directed towards improving the functions of existing services. This article discusses the policy considerations of extension within the broader context of agricultural development goals and the overall direction of the country's development objectives and strategies. A framework is presented for analysing important characteristics of different extension development options. The issues raised are relevant to the larger concerns of adult education policy and the promotion of lifelong learning strategies within society. They include the relationship of sectoral goals and policies to broader national objectives, the audience the public sector should target, the role of the private sector, the structural arrangements best suited to meet certain objectives and the correct mixture and co‐ordination of various services and programmes.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract

Purpose: This case study deals with the implementation methodology, innovations and lessons of the ICT initiative in providing agricultural extension services to the rural tribal farming community of North-East India.

Methodology: This study documents the ICT project implementation challenges, impact among farmers and briefly indicates lessons of the e-agriculture project.

Findings: The e-agriculture prototype demonstrated that the Rs. 2,400 (USD 53) cost of the extension services to provide farm advisory services was saved per farmer per year, expenditure was reduced 3.6 times in comparison with the conventional extension system. Sixteenfold less time was required by the farmers for availing the services and threefold less time was required to deliver the services to the farmers compared with the conventional extension system. However, this article argues that in less developed areas, information through ICTs alone may not create expected development. Along with appropriate agricultural information and knowledge, field demonstrations and forward (farm machinery, manure, seeds) and backward linkages (post-harvest technology and market) need to be facilitated with appropriate public–private partnership between knowledge and other rural advisory service providers for agricultural development.

Practical implications: This article lists a number of practical lessons which will be useful for the successful planning and implementation of e-agriculture projects in developing countries.

Original value: This article is a first case study on ICTs for agricultural extension initiatives among the tribal farmers who dominate the less developed North-East India.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract

The aim of this study was to understand the role that agricultural consultants in New Zealand were undertaking in the Research, Development and Extension (RD&E) system—and in particular in relation to environmental extension. New Zealand does not have a public extension service and hence there is a strong reliance on consultants and regional councils for environmental management information and advice. As they are independent of the formal RD&E system there is no guarantee that RD&E outcomes are reaching farmers, nor that effective environmental extension is occurring. The study used a combination of case studies, phone interviews with informed persons and a national web survey to explore the role of the consultant. The study found that agricultural consultants are playing an important role in working with farmers to improve agricultural production. There are, however, indications that gaps have developed over time between agricultural consultants and the agricultural research sector which limit the effectiveness of the RD&E system. Agricultural consultants are playing a minimal role in proactive environmental extension because insufficient market forces are driving this role. The paper suggests that a national database of agricultural consultants could improve the flow of tailored information between research and agricultural consultants and also suggests mechanisms where consultants could be better integrated into the RD&E system and provide feedback to research programs. Market failure in the area of environmental extension could be addressed by publicly funded incentive programs.  相似文献   

11.
This paper will explore private sector participation in public sector education in the Australian context, focusing on case studies of Queensland and New South Wales, with reference to developments in other states and territories and internationally. In Australia, most states and territories have PPP policies and key projects include the Southbank redevelopment in Brisbane and the ‘New schools’ Project in Sydney. The case studies are both supported by Labor state governments and typify the state of affairs nationally, For Queensland, the Southbank TAFE Institute and Brisbane State High School have been brought into a new education precinct in order to ‘free up’ the system by outsourcing non‐core services and ‘free up’ valuable inner‐city land. In NSW, nine new public schools are being built by a private consortium, for a cost of $100 million as part of a program totaling $5 billion in areas under‐serviced by government schools. Yet despite a concerted effort to sell the value of PPPs, Australians appear to be ambivalent about ‘privatization’ of public services. This paper will look at whether PPPs are robbing the public sector to pay the private sector, and where this strategy is taking Australia and the future of our education systems.  相似文献   

12.
Abstract

A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of male and female extension agents in reaching farmers, especially women, with extension services in Nigeria. Specially the study determined the levels of awareness of and participation in extension activities, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended agricultural technologies/practices, satisfaction with the quality of extension services provided and agents' credibility of men and women farmers under male and female extension agents supervision. Data gathered from 141 men and 72 women farmers supervised by male agents and 22 men and 93 women farmers supervised by female agents in Oyo, Kaduna and Rivers State Agricultural Development Projects in Nigeria form the empirical basis for the study. Even though men farmers are more aware of and participated more in the extension activities organised by agents than women farmers, the study shows that women farmers, who are supervised by female agents have more access to extension services than women farmers who work with male agents. Specifically, women farmers, who had females for extension agents had relatively higher levels of awareness and participation of the extension activities organised, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended technologies/practices and satisfaction with the quality of agents' services and credibility. These differential effects of female and male agents on women's access to extension are significant for the delivery of extension services to women farmers, especially. Extension organisations must encourage and recruit more females for extension work done at the same time evolve strategies that will help male agents to work better with women farmers.  相似文献   

13.
Purpose: This article examined how institutional factors influencing the promotion of two elephant crop-raiding deterrent innovations (ECDIs) introduced to farmers through a ministry-based extension system in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, have impacted farmers’ adoption behaviour. Methodology: A standardised interview schedule was used to elicit responses from 388 randomly sampled subsistence arable farmers on how institutions influenced the adoption of ECDIs in five communities in the study area. This was complemented by focus group discussions to obtain in-depth information on the subject-matter. Key informants interviews were also conducted with purposively selected extension agents, village project committee chairpersons and village dikgosi. Findings: Four institutional factors were found to be critical for the adoption of ECDIs. These include institutional relations, availability and/or supply of deterrent innovation inputs, farmers’ contact with extension agents and government support for extension services. Theoretical Implications: Immediate and widespread adoption of ECDIs in the ever-changing socio-economic and political environment can be enhanced by context-specific institutional arrangements in addressing social and organisational constraints to innovation adoption. Originality: This paper invoked organisational theory to contribute to the scholarly debate on how agricultural extension systems influence farming clientele’s behaviour and social change. It offers the first attempt in the investigation of the role of extension and associated institutions/organisations in promoting adoption of ECDIs among subsistence farmers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Findings indicate that local farmers do not perceive extension agencies to hold monopoly of ideas and solutions to their unique problems.  相似文献   

14.
Abstract

Public good will towards the investment in research and extension on environment-friendly production practices is the justification for publicly funded extension services. Although there are major environmental problems associated with agricultural production in Turkey, the present role of public extension service to control and reduce adverse environmental effects is minimal.

The short term goal of the publicly funded agricultural extension is to establish a control and enforcement system which will ensure that the current production practices cause as little harm as possible to the environment. In the long term, however, publicly provided investment in research and extension on sustainable agricultural systems is necessary. The investments should aim towards ensuring a wholesome food supply for the community whilst maintaining the quality of the environment and natural resources.  相似文献   

15.
Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of farmer-oriented policies as regards the Iranian agricultural extension system. Methodology: To fulfill this objective, a Delphi technique was utilized. The study used a series of three steps, engaging a panel of experts on farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension system. Finding: The characteristics of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system were classified into six categories including: need-based programs, proper interaction among stakeholders, decentralization and higher stakeholders’ participation, enabling stakeholders with emphasis on smallholder farmers, market-oriented programs and integrated policies. The findings indicated that ‘enabling farmers to solve their technical problems’ and ‘engaging farmers in planning, executing and evaluating of the programs’ had the highest percentage of agreement. Theoretical implication: From a theoretical point of view, the finding of this research has introduced six categories as characteristics of a farmer-oriented policy that could have practical implications for agricultural extension system in Iran. Also, this paper proposes a framework for future studies in the field of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system. Practical implications: Recognizing the characteristics of farmer-oriented intervention of agricultural extension shows that targeted extension approaches are needed to pay attention to these characteristics in various stages of planning, delivering and evaluation of extension programs. Originality/value: This paper provides a comprehensive list of characteristics of farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension that can be helpful for agricultural policy-makers in devising programs of extension services.  相似文献   

16.
Abstract

Purpose: Formal agricultural research has generated vast amount of knowledge and fundamental insights on land management, but their low adoption has been attributed to the use of public extension approach. This research aims to address whether and how full participation of farmers through the concept of Rural Resource Centre (RRC) provides new insights for the development of alternative and farmers-based extension methods.

Design/Methodology/Approach: Using the Concept of RRC, this research assesses the role of farmers in on-farm demonstrations and scaling-up of land management practices, and investigates effective ways to enhance beneficial interactions between researchers, extension workers and farmers in view of improving adoption.

Findings: The findings suggest that farmers can effectively participate in demonstrations and scaling-up of agricultural practices. This participation is enhanced by judicious incentives such as higher crop yields that motivate farmers and influence adoption. The current success of the approach stems from the fact that farmers, extension workers and researchers jointly implement the activities and their different aims were achieved simultaneously: scientific results for researchers, better agricultural practices for extension workers, and economic success and free choice for farmers.

Practical implications: This research concludes that farmers have the capacities to play an innermost role in demonstrations and scaling-up of agricultural practices. However, there is a need to build and strengthen their capacities to facilitate their participation and contribution.

Originality/Value: The article demonstrates the value of the preponderant role of farmers in on-farm demonstrations and scaling-up practices by exhibiting the beneficial interactions between researchers, extension workers and farmers.  相似文献   

17.
Abstract

Promoting rural development in Africa involves learning to clap with two hands, that is to say, creating effective interaction between local knowledge and development initiatives, on the one hand, and the knowledge and initiatives of formal agricultural research and extension, on the other. Farmer innovators ‐men and women farmers who take their own initiative to change local agriculture ‐ are key allies in rural development, as shown by the experience of the ISWC programme in Africa. Focusing on Ethiopia and Tanzania, the authors describe how formal research and extension services are made aware of farmers’ innovative work and are encouraged to document the results, promote their spread, and support further development efforts by farmer innovators. A modified Participatory Technology Development (PTD) approach is thus emerging, which starts not with problem analysis but rather by linking up with local problem‐solving initiatives. While the learning process on this approach continues, dialogue has been initiated with policy‐makers with a view to incorporating the approach into regular government extension, research and training activities.  相似文献   

18.
Amid rising violence against civilian aid operations in insecure environments, attacks on the education sector pose a unique set of challenges for international aid actors. In recent years incidents of violence targeting the education sector in Afghanistan and the conflict-affected areas of Pakistan have increased. This article synthesizes recent research, quantitative analyses, and observations of practitioners in order to explore the key issues facing aid workers in the education sector. The findings suggest that in extremely violent and polarized environments such as Afghanistan and the conflict-affected areas of Pakistan, the international community can provide education assistance more effectively and securely through a low-profile, community-based approach that de-emphasizes the role of government, and avoids, as far as possible, any association with international political/military actors. The authors conclude that education sector coordinators could play a larger role in providing practical guidance and supporting an inter-agency dialogue to share lessons and good practice in delivering education services in these contexts.  相似文献   

19.
Purpose: To examine the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the adoption of best practice with regard to herd-level mastitis management.Design/Methodology/Approach: Somatic cell count (SCC) is an indicator of herd health with regard to mastitis and is negatively related to productivity and profitability. Panel data regression methods are utilised here to quantify the role of agricultural education and extension in reducing cell count and in influencing farmer best practice with regard to herd health. The impact of education and extension on farmer uptake of milk recording is of particular interest. Data utilised is farm-level Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) data for Ireland over a five-year period (2008–2012).Findings: Farmer uptake of formal agricultural training and liaison with agricultural extension services are shown to significantly improve mastitis herd health. Collectively, education, extension and milk recording results in an overall SCC reduction of 25% for the average herd. Farmers who undertook agricultural training were ten times more likely to monitor milk quality through milk recording compared to those who had not. Additionally, those farmers in contact with an extension service and also participated in a dairy discussion group were seven times more likely to practice milk recording.Practical Implications: The importance of farmer behaviour in the optimum management of herd health has been validated, as has the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the uptake of best practice by farmers.Originality/Value: To date little research has been conducted using nationally representative herd-level data on the role of agricultural education and extension in improving animal health best practice.  相似文献   

20.
This paper explores an emerging and largely unresearched sector of the school education market, the transfer of local authority support services to external social enterprises. It locates these new social enterprises as a consequence of government strategies to reduce public spending, shrink local government and create competitive markets in public service provision. Non-profit social enterprises create and occupy a sector of a differentiated market in school support services which is not sufficiently commercially attractive to for-profit companies. The government discourse of these social enterprises as employee-led mutuals is contradicted by their user-led ownership and governance regimes. The analysis offered by this paper is substantiated by a case study, based on interviews and policy documents, of the transfer of the Birmingham local authority's Music and Health Education Services to a social enterprise independent from the city council.  相似文献   

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