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1.
Officiating bias is thought to contribute to home advantage. Recent research has shown that sports with subjective officiating tend to experience greater home advantage and that referees' decisions can be influenced by crowd noise, but little work has been done to examine whether individual referees vary in their home bias or whether biased decisions contribute to overall home advantage. We develop an ordinal regression model to determine whether various measures of home advantage are affected by the official for the match and by crowd size while controlling for team ability. We examine 5244 English Premier League (EPL) match results involving 50 referees and find that home bias differs between referees. Individual referees give significantly different levels of home advantage, measured as goal differential between the home and away teams, although the significance of this result depends on one referee with a particularly high home advantage (an outlier). Referees vary significantly and robustly in their yellow card and penalty differentials even excluding the outlier. These results confirm that referees are responsible for some of the observed home advantage in the EPL and suggest that home advantage is dependent on the subjective decisions of referees that vary between individuals. We hypothesize that individual referees respond differently to factors such as crowd noise and suggest further research looking at referees' psychological and behavioural responses to biased crowds.  相似文献   

2.
《Sport Management Review》2020,23(3):443-454
The regulation of on-field competition by officials is an important aspect of the management of sport. Increasingly, sports are providing technological support for officials to aid their decision making. In this paper, the authors analyse the impact of such an innovation by exploring the impact of the introduction and subsequent extended role of the television match official on the award of sanctionable offences of players in matches played in the group stages of the European Rugby Cup (ERC) and European Rugby Champions Cup (ERCC) over 15 seasons from 2000/01 to 2015/16. Rugby Union is an important sport to reflect upon because of the central role that the referee plays in rule interpretation and game management and the level of home advantage tends to be relatively high in the sport. Indeed, 65% of all matches in the sample analysed resulted in home wins. Results suggest that crowd effects and referee experience influence referee decisions, but the effects vary depending on the type of incident being considered. The main finding and contribution of the paper is that the introduction of the television match official has influenced the incidence of sanctions issued to both teams. However, the increase in the number of yellow cards awarded to away teams implies that home bias has increased since the introduction of the television match official. This suggests that referees may have been consciously or unconsciously seeking to avoid contributing to home bias before the introduction of a further official who is remote from the effects of the crowd. Recognising that such an adjustment takes place according to the circumstances is important information for the training of officials; particularly as a television match official may not be present in all games that they will referee.  相似文献   

3.
Home advantage in team games is well proven and the influence of the crowd upon officials' decisions has been identified as a plausible cause. The aim of this study was to assess the significance of home advantage for five event groups selected from the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1996, and put home advantage in team games in context with other sports. The five event groups were athletics and weightlifting (predominantly objectively judged), boxing and gymnastics (predominantly subjectively judged) and team games (involving subjective decisions). The proportion of points won was analysed as a binomial response variable using generalized linear interactive modelling. Preliminary exploration of the data highlighted the need to control for the proportion of competitors entered and to split the analysis pre- and post-war. Highly significant home advantage was found in event groups that were either subjectively judged or rely on subjective decisions. In contrast, little or no home advantage (and even away advantage) was observed for the two objectively judged groups. Officiating system was vital to both the existence and extent of home advantage. Our findings suggest that crowd noise has a greater influence upon officials' decisions than players' performances, as events with greater officiating input enjoyed significantly greater home advantage.  相似文献   

4.
Home advantage in team games is well proven and the influence of the crowd upon officials' decisions has been identified as a plausible cause. The aim of this study was to assess the significance of home advantage for five event groups selected from the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1996, and put home advantage in team games in context with other sports. The five event groups were athletics and weightlifting (predominantly objectively judged), boxing and gymnastics (predominantly subjectively judged) and team games (involving subjective decisions). The proportion of points won was analysed as a binomial response variable using generalized linear interactive modelling. Preliminary exploration of the data highlighted the need to control for the proportion of competitors entered and to split the analysis pre- and post-war. Highly significant home advantage was found in event groups that were either subjectively judged or rely on subjective decisions. In contrast, little or no home advantage (and even away advantage) was observed for the two objectively judged groups. Officiating system was vital to both the existence and extent of home advantage. Our findings suggest that crowd noise has a greater influence upon officials' decisions than players' performances, as events with greater officiating input enjoyed significantly greater home advantage.  相似文献   

5.
This study assessed whether decisions made by six qualified referees were consistent when watching the live 2016 televised Champions League Final. Referees were paired off into three separate rooms. Two referees watched the game with no supporters present. Two watched the game surrounded by Real Madrid supporters, and the remaining two watched the game surrounded by Athletic Madrid supporters. Referees were asked to decide whether each decision made by the on-field referee was either correct or incorrect. Results identified two types of refereeing inconsistency. The first type was a systematic tendency of the supporting crowds (both rooms) to influence the adjudicating referees to make fewer incorrect (disagree with the on-field referee) decisions (8 and 5) than referees in the “no supporters” room (19) (χ2 = 11.22 [df = 2], P = 0.004). The second type of inconsistency was the home advantage “bias”, where the surrounding crowd influenced the adjudicating referees to favour their team, by disagreeing with the decision made by the on-field referee (χ2 = 6.0 [df = 2], P = 0.0498). One explanation for these inconsistencies is that referees adopt a coping strategy of “avoidance”, i.e., when faced with difficult decisions, referees simply avoid making unpopular decisions by waving “play on”.  相似文献   

6.
There have been many examples of contentious points decisions in boxing. Professional boxing is scored subjectively by judges and referees scoring each round of the contest. We assessed whether the probability of a home win (and therefore home advantage) increased when bouts were decided by points decisions rather than knockouts. Overall, we found that bouts ending in points decisions had a significantly higher proportion of home wins than those decided by a knockout, though this effect varied across time, and controlling for relative quality of boxers was only effective when using more recent data. Focusing on these data, again the probability of a home win was higher with a points decision and this effect was consistent as “relative quality” varied. For equally matched boxers (“relative quality” = 0), expected probability of a home win was 0.57 for knockouts, 0.66 for technical knockouts and 0.74 for points decisions. The results of the present study lend general support to the notion that home advantage is more prevalent in sports that involve subjective decision-making. We suggest that interventions should be designed to inform judges to counter home advantage effects.  相似文献   

7.
There have been many examples of contentious points decisions in boxing. Professional boxing is scored subjectively by judges and referees scoring each round of the contest. We assessed whether the probability of a home win (and therefore home advantage) increased when bouts were decided by points decisions rather than knockouts. Overall, we found that bouts ending in points decisions had a significantly higher proportion of home wins than those decided by a knockout, though this effect varied across time, and controlling for relative quality of boxers was only effective when using more recent data. Focusing on these data, again the probability of a home win was higher with a points decision and this effect was consistent as "relative quality" varied. For equally matched boxers ("relative quality" = 0), expected probability of a home win was 0.57 for knockouts, 0.66 for technical knockouts and 0.74 for points decisions. The results of the present study lend general support to the notion that home advantage is more prevalent in sports that involve subjective decision-making. We suggest that interventions should be designed to inform judges to counter home advantage effects.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract

Data were collected on the number of first yellow cards awarded during 857 games, over six seasons (1996 – 2002), played in the Football Association (FA) Cup. Overall, a significantly higher number of yellow cards were awarded against the away team, while a non-linear relationship between crowd size and yellow cards was observed. In general, the probability of a yellow card being awarded against the home team decreased as crowd size increased, but was attenuated for the largest crowd sizes. Crowd size may be related to the probability of the home team receiving a yellow card in two potential ways. Crowd noise may be a decision-making heuristic whereby the likelihood that an incident is a foul is increased when accompanied by crowd noise. Alternatively, referees may seek to appease the crowd and are more likely to do so as crowd size increases. The present findings have implications for the training of match officials and for coaches and players as they prepare to play away from home.  相似文献   

9.
Data were collected on the number of first yellow cards awarded during 857 games, over six seasons (1996 - 2002), played in the Football Association (FA) Cup. Overall, a significantly higher number of yellow cards were awarded against the away team, while a non-linear relationship between crowd size and yellow cards was observed. In general, the probability of a yellow card being awarded against the home team decreased as crowd size increased, but was attenuated for the largest crowd sizes. Crowd size may be related to the probability of the home team receiving a yellow card in two potential ways. Crowd noise may be a decision-making heuristic whereby the likelihood that an incident is a foul is increased when accompanied by crowd noise. Alternatively, referees may seek to appease the crowd and are more likely to do so as crowd size increases. The present findings have implications for the training of match officials and for coaches and players as they prepare to play away from home.  相似文献   

10.
The results of this study on home advantage in Australian rules football demonstrate that individual clubs have different home advantages. Traditional measures of home advantage as applied to whole competitions such as percentage of games won, and alternative measures such as average margin of victory for the home team, are calculated. Problems with these measures are discussed. Individual home advantages for each team are obtained using a linear model fitted to individual match margins; the resultant home advantages are analysed, and variations and possible causes or groupings of home advantage are proposed. It is shown that some models allowing different home advantages for different clubs are a significant improvement over previous models assuming a common home advantage. The results show a strong isolation effect, with non-Victorian teams having large home advantages, and lend support to the conclusion that crowd effects and ground familiarity are a major determinant of home advantage.  相似文献   

11.
The results of this study on home advantage in Australian rules football demonstrate that individual clubs have different home advantages. Traditional measures of home advantage as applied to whole competitions such as percentage of games won, and alternative measures such as average margin of victory for the home team, are calculated. Problems with these measures are discussed. Individual home advantages for each team are obtained using a linear model fitted to individual match margins; the resultant home advantages are analysed, and variations and possible causes or groupings of home advantage are proposed. It is shown that some models allowing different home advantages for different clubs are a significant improvement over previous models assuming a common home advantage. The results show a strong isolation effect, with non-Victorian teams having large home advantages, and lend support to the conclusion that crowd effects and ground familiarity are a major determinant of home advantage.  相似文献   

12.
To examine the activity profile and physiological demands of top-class soccer refereeing, we performed computerized time-motion analyses and measured the heart rate and blood lactate concentration of 27 referees during 43 competitive matches in the two top Danish leagues. To relate match performance to physical capacity and training, several physiological tests were performed before and after intermittent exercise training. Total distance covered was 10.07 - 0.13 km (mean - s x ), of which 1.67 - 0.08 km was high-intensity running. High-intensity running and backwards running decreased (P ? 0.05) in the second half. Mean heart rate was 162 - 2 beats· min -1 (85 - 1% of maximal heart rate) and the mean blood lactate concentration was 4.9 - 0.3 (range 1.7-14.0) mmol·l -1 . The amount of high-intensity running during a match was related to the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test ( r 2 = 0.57; P ? 0.05) and the 12 min run ( r 2 = 0.21; P ? 0.05). After intermittent training ( n = 8), distance covered during high-intensity running was greater (2.06 - 0.13 vs 1.69 - 0.08 km; P ? 0.05) and mean heart rate was lower (159 - 1 vs 164 - 2 beats· min -1 ; P ? 0.05) than before training. The results of the present study demonstrate that: (1) top-class soccer referees have significant aerobic energy expenditure throughout a game and episodes of considerable anaerobic energy turnover; (2) the ability to perform high-intensity running is reduced towards the end of matches; (3) the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test can be used to evaluate referees' match performance; and (4) intense intermittent exercise training improves referees' performance capacity during a game.  相似文献   

13.
Abstract

The influence of players' standard of competition on referees' decision making was investigated. Standard of competition was examined by studying 30 handball matches, 15 at League and 15 at National standard. At both standards, we examined two types of refereeing decision (sporting and disciplinary) after transgressions that varied in ambiguity. The results indicated that referees made more lenient decisions at higher standards of competition, but this tendency depended on the type of decision being made and ambiguity in the offence. The hypothesis that referees use standard of competition as a judgemental heuristic, but in varying ways, was supported.  相似文献   

14.
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15.
Abstract

The influence of a potentially fouled player's vocalisations on the referee's decisions was investigated. Experienced soccer referees watched video clips of real-match situations that were presented either without sound or with sound where a player's vocalisations were clearly audible and made judgements regarding fouls, direction of play and personal penalties. The results revealed that players’ vocalisations had no impact on the foul decisions of the referees. However, once a referee made a foul decision, the player's vocalisations led to an increased number of personal penalties (increase in yellow cards) for the foul-causing player. In addition to crowd noise, a player's vocalisations during a foul are used as a proximal cue in the referee's decision-making process.  相似文献   

16.
Abstract

Time-motion analyses and physiological measurements were performed to investigate the physiological demands of football referees (n = 15) and assistant referees (n = 15) in international games and to examine whether high-intensity running (HIR) correlates to the referees' ability to keep up with play. Total distance covered (10.27 ± 0.90 vs. 6.76 ± 0.83 km) and HIR (1.92 ± 0.58 vs. 0.97 ± 0.22 km) was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees, while sprinting distance was not different. Referees covered 0.89 ± 0.37 km by backwards running and assistant referees covered 1.54 ± 0.66 km by sideways running. Mean heart rate was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees (150 ± 3 vs. 123 ± 3 b.p.m.), whereas blood lactate was not different. Backwards/sideways running decreased (P < 0.05) from the first to the last 15-min period for referees (49%) and assistant referees (42%), whereas HIR was unaltered. HIR was inversely correlated with the five highest distances from infringements in both halves (r = ?0.60 and ?0.58, P < 0.05). In conclusion, international match officials carry out an important amount of HIR throughout games, while low-intensity and unorthodox running activities are reduced during games. Referees performing the most high-intensity work are better to keep up with play. The match activities differ significantly between referees and assistant referees, which should be considered in training and testing procedures.  相似文献   

17.
The aim of this study was to examine the physical and perceptual-cognitive demands imposed on UEFA top-class referees and assistant referees during the final round of the Euro 2000 Championship. To investigate the physical workload, the heart rates during matches were monitored by short-range radio telemetry and translated to different workloads expressed as a percentage of maximal heart rate. For measurement of the perceptual-cognitive workload, video-recordings of games were used to obtain the average number of observable decisions taken by a referee. On average, referees and assistant referees performed the matches at 85±5% and 77±7% of their maximal heart rate, respectively. Over the 31 games, the mean number of observable decisions was 137 (range 104–162), 64% of which were based on communication with the assistant referees and/or the fourth official. To optimize the physical preparation of top-class match officials, the results of this study support the application of intensive and intermittent training sessions, which should place priority on high-intensity aerobic stimuli. In addition, video training is discussed as an additional method for improving match officials' decision making.  相似文献   

18.
It has been suggested that individuals may use heuristic methods of reasoning and rely on schemata when a quick decision is necessary. Accordingly, it is possible that decisions made by sport officials may be influenced by prior knowledge they have about teams they are officiating. The aim of the present study was to determine whether sport officials are more likely to penalize individuals who participate in a team with an aggressive reputation. In a balanced design, 38 football referees were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group and were presented with the same 50 video clips of incidents from football games, all involving a team in a blue strip ('blue team'). The incidents were categorized before the study by five experienced referees into fouls committed both by, and against, the blue team, where all participants agreed that a foul had been committed (certain incidents), disagreed it was a foul (uncertain incidents) or agreed that there was no foul (innocuous incidents). Both groups received written instructions before the task; in addition, the experimental group was informed that the blue team present in all of the clips had a reputation for foul and aggressive play. For each incident, the participants were required to indicate what action they would engage in if refereeing the game. Although there was no difference in the number of decisions made, the experimental group awarded significantly more red and yellow cards against the blue team both overall and for the 'certain' incidents. It is suggested that prior knowledge may impact referees' behaviour in a laboratory setting, although future research should explore whether a similar effect is observed in the behaviour of referees during football matches.  相似文献   

19.
Abstract

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between intensities of exercise during match-play of elite-standard soccer referees with those of the players from the same match. Match analysis data were collected (Prozone® Leeds, UK) for 18 elite-standard soccer referees (age 26–49 years) on FA Premier League matches during the 2008/09 English FA Premier League season (236 observations). Running categories for referees and players were as follows: total distance covered (m); high-speed running distance (speed >19.8 km · h?1); and sprinting distance (speed >25.2 km · h?1). Analysis of the distance–time regression coefficients revealed no differences between the referees' and players' within-match rates of change for total distance covered (?0.594 ± 0.394 vs. ?0.713 ± 0.269 m · min?1; P = 0.104), high-speed running (?0.039 ± 0.077 vs. ?0.059 ± 0.030 m · min?1; P = 0.199), and sprinting (?0.003 ± 0.039 vs. ?0.021 ± 0.017 m · min?1; P = 0.114). In addition, there were no differences between across-season rates of change for total distance (–26.756 ± 40.434 vs. ?20.031 ± 25.502 m per match day; P = 0.439) and sprinting (–9.662 ± 7.564 vs. ?8.589 ± 4.351 m per match day; P = 0.542). These results show that elite-standard soccer referees' intensities of exercise during match-play are interrelated with those of the players and thus demonstrate that referees are able to keep pace with the players during FA Premier League matches.  相似文献   

20.
Many of the factors identified as influencing the home advantage have an underlying social basis, presumably through the influence exerted by the home crowd. Beliefs in the home advantage and the causes of that advantage also have a social basis: sports coverage and fan discourse focus on some aspects of the phenomenon at the expense of others. This paper compares home advantage research with the use of the concept in media narratives and fan Intemet postings. While there are many similarities across sources, the findings suggest three major differences. Fans, and to a lesser extent the media, (1) focus almost exclusively on winning as the evidence for a home advantage, (2) see crowd noise as the main factor for the home advantage, and (3) treat the phenomenon as much more transient than is suggested by academic studies. I identify several features of the phenomenon that facilitate popular views of the home advantage and suggest how future research may benefit from incorporating those views.  相似文献   

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