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1.
The behavioural modifications that accompany Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) are usually associated with some alterations in the metabolic, physiological, and psychological responses of athletes that may affect sport performance. Muslim athletes who are required to train and/or compete during the month-long, diurnal fast must adopt coping strategies that allow them to maintain physical fitness and motivation if they are to perform at the highest level. This updated review aims to present the current state of knowledge of the effects of RIF on training and performance, focusing on key-factors that contribute to the effects of Ramadan on exercise performance: energy restriction, sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm perturbation, dehydration, and alterations in the training load. The available literature contain few studies that have examined the effects of RIF on physical performance in athletes and, to date, the results are inconclusive, so the effects of RIF on competition outcomes are not at present wholly understood. The diverse findings probably indicate individual differences in the adaptability and self-generated coping strategies of athletes during fasting and training. However, the results of the small number of well-controlled studies that have examined the effects of Ramadan on athletic performance suggest that few aspects of physical fitness are negatively affected, and where decrements are observed these are usually modest. Subjective feelings of fatigue and other mood indicators are often cited as implying additional stress on the athlete throughout Ramadan, but most studies show that these factors may not result in decreases in performance and that perceived exercise intensity is unlikely to increase to any significant degree. Current evidence from good, well-controlled research supports the conclusion that athletes who maintain their total energy and macronutrient intake, training load, body composition, and sleep length and quality are unlikely to suffer any substantial decrements in performance during Ramadan. Further research is required to determine the effect of RIF on the most challenging events or exercise protocols and on elite athletes competing in extreme environments. 相似文献
2.
This article highlights new nutritional concerns or practices that may influence the adaptation to training. The discussion is based on the assumption that the adaptation to repeated bouts of training occurs during recovery periods and that if one can train harder, the adaptation will be greater. The goal is to maximize with nutrition the recovery/adaptation that occurs in all rest periods, such that recovery before the next training session is complete. Four issues have been identified where recent scientific information will force sports nutritionists to embrace new issues and reassess old issues and, ultimately, alter the nutritional recommendations they give to athletes. These are: (1) caffeine ingestion; (2) creatine ingestion; (3) the use of intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) as a fuel during exercise and the nutritional effects on IMTG repletion following exercise; and (4) the role nutrition may play in regulating the expression of genes during and after exercise training sessions. Recent findings suggest that low doses of caffeine exert significant ergogenic effects by directly affecting the central nervous system during exercise. Caffeine can cross the blood-brain barrier and antagonize the effects of adenosine, resulting in higher concentrations of stimulatory neurotransmitters. These new data strengthen the case for using low doses of caffeine during training. On the other hand, the data on the role that supplemental creatine ingestion plays in augmenting the increase in skeletal muscle mass and strength during resistance training remain equivocal. Some studies are able to demonstrate increases in muscle fibre size with creatine ingestion and some are not. The final two nutritional topics are new and have not progressed to the point that we can specifically identify strategies to enhance the adaptation to training. However, it is likely that nutritional strategies will be needed to replenish the IMTG that is used during endurance exercise. It is not presently clear whether the IMTG store is chronically reduced when engaging in daily sessions of endurance training or if this impacts negatively on the ability to train. It is also likely that the increased interest in gene and protein expression measurements will lead to nutritional strategies to optimize the adaptations that occur in skeletal muscle during and after exercise training sessions. Research in these areas in the coming years will lead to strategies designed to improve the adaptive response to training. 相似文献
3.
This article highlights new nutritional concerns or practices that may influence the adaptation to training. The discussion is based on the assumption that the adaptation to repeated bouts of training occurs during recovery periods and that if one can train harder, the adaptation will be greater. The goal is to maximize with nutrition the recovery/adaptation that occurs in all rest periods, such that recovery before the next training session is complete. Four issues have been identified where recent scientific information will force sports nutritionists to embrace new issues and reassess old issues and, ultimately, alter the nutritional recommendations they give to athletes. These are: (1) caffeine ingestion; (2) creatine ingestion; (3) the use of intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) as a fuel during exercise and the nutritional effects on IMTG repletion following exercise; and (4) the role nutrition may play in regulating the expression of genes during and after exercise training sessions. Recent findings suggest that low doses of caffeine exert significant ergogenic effects by directly affecting the central nervous system during exercise. Caffeine can cross the blood–brain barrier and antagonize the effects of adenosine, resulting in higher concentrations of stimulatory neurotransmitters. These new data strengthen the case for using low doses of caffeine during training. On the other hand, the data on the role that supplemental creatine ingestion plays in augmenting the increase in skeletal muscle mass and strength during resistance training remain equivocal. Some studies are able to demonstrate increases in muscle fibre size with creatine ingestion and some are not. The final two nutritional topics are new and have not progressed to the point that we can specifically identify strategies to enhance the adaptation to training. However, it is likely that nutritional strategies will be needed to replenish the IMTG that is used during endurance exercise. It is not presently clear whether the IMTG store is chronically reduced when engaging in daily sessions of endurance training or if this impacts negatively on the ability to train. It is also likely that the increased interest in gene and protein expression measurements will lead to nutritional strategies to optimize the adaptations that occur in skeletal muscle during and after exercise training sessions. Research in these areas in the coming years will lead to strategies designed to improve the adaptive response to training. 相似文献
4.
An athlete's carbohydrate intake can be judged by whether total daily intake and the timing of consumption in relation to exercise maintain adequate carbohydrate substrate for the muscle and central nervous system ("high carbohydrate availability") or whether carbohydrate fuel sources are limiting for the daily exercise programme ("low carbohydrate availability"). Carbohydrate availability is increased by consuming carbohydrate in the hours or days prior to the session, intake during exercise, and refuelling during recovery between sessions. This is important for the competition setting or for high-intensity training where optimal performance is desired. Carbohydrate intake during exercise should be scaled according to the characteristics of the event. During sustained high-intensity sports lasting ~1 h, small amounts of carbohydrate, including even mouth-rinsing, enhance performance via central nervous system effects. While 30-60 g · h(-1) is an appropriate target for sports of longer duration, events >2.5 h may benefit from higher intakes of up to 90 g · h(-1). Products containing special blends of different carbohydrates may maximize absorption of carbohydrate at such high rates. In real life, athletes undertake training sessions with varying carbohydrate availability. Whether implementing additional "train-low" strategies to increase the training adaptation leads to enhanced performance in well-trained individuals is unclear. 相似文献
5.
Exercise in the heat poses a formidable challenge to the body's ability to control its internal environment due to the high rates of metabolic heat production and heat gain by physical transfer from the environment. In an attempt to restrict the rise in core temperature, an increased rate of sweat secretion onto the skin is invoked. This may limit the rise in core temperature, and can prolong the time before a limiting temperature is attained, but it does so at the cost of a loss of body water and electrolytes. The effects of the diminished blood volume are offset to some extent by cardiovascular adaptations, including an increased heart rate and an increased peripheral resistance, but these are insufficient to maintain functional capacity when blood volume is reduced. Prior dehydration will impair performance in both prolonged exercise and short-term high-intensity exercise. Athletes living and training in the heat may experience chronic hypohydration due to inadequate replacement of fluid losses. The negative consequences of exercise in the heat are attenuated to some extent by a period of adaptation, and by the ingestion of water or other appropriate fluids. Optimum fluid replacement strategies will depend on the exercise task, the environmental conditions and the individual physiological characteristics of the athlete. Manipulation of pre-exercise body temperature can also influence exercise performance and may be a strategy that can be used by athletes competing in stressful environments. 相似文献
6.
Exercise in the heat poses a formidable challenge to the body's ability to control its internal environment due to the high rates of metabolic heat production and heat gain by physical transfer from the environment. In an attempt to restrict the rise in core temperature, an increased rate of sweat secretion onto the skin is invoked. This may limit the rise in core temperature, and can prolong the time before a limiting temperature is attained, but it does so at the cost of a loss of body water and electrolytes. The effects of the diminished blood volume are offset to some extent by cardiovascular adaptations, including an increased heart rate and an increased peripheral resistance, but these are insufficient to maintain functional capacity when blood volume is reduced. Prior dehydration will impair performance in both prolonged exercise and short-term high-intensity exercise. Athletes living and training in the heat may experience chronic hypohydration due to inadequate replacement of fluid losses. The negative consequences of exercise in the heat are attenuated to some extent by a period of adaptation, and by the ingestion of water or other appropriate fluids. Optimum fluid replacement strategies will depend on the exercise task, the environmental conditions and the individual physiological characteristics of the athlete. Manipulation of pre-exercise body temperature can also influence exercise performance and may be a strategy that can be used by athletes competing in stressful environments. 相似文献
7.
《European Journal of Sport Science》2013,13(1):3-14
Abstract Both carbohydrate depletion and dehydration have been shown to decrease performance whilst severe dehydration can also cause adverse health effects. Therefore carbohydrate and fluid requirements are increased with exercise. Ingestion of 200–300?g of CHO 3–4?h prior to exercise is an effective strategy in order to meet daily CHO demands and increase CHO availability during the subsequent exercise period. There is little evidence that CHO during the hour immediately prior to exercise has adverse effects such as rebound hypoglycaemia. CHO ingestion during exercise has been shown to improve performance as measured by enhanced work output or decreased exercise time to complete a fixed amount of work. Recent studies have demonstrated that exogenous CHO oxidation rates can be increased by ingesting combinations of CHO that use different intestinal CHO transporters. After exercise maximal muscle glycogen re-synthesis rates can be achieved by ingesting CHO at a rate of ～1.2?g/kg/h, in relatively frequent (e.g., 15–30?min) intervals for up to 5?h following exercise. Protein amino acid mixtures may increase glycogen synthesis further but only if relatively small amounts of CHO are ingested. Hypohydration and hyperthermia alone have negative effects on performance but their combination is particularly serious, both in terms of performance and health. Dehydration can be prevented by fluid ingestion pre exercise and during exercise. Because of large individual differences it is difficult to individualise the advice. Perhaps the best guidance for athletes is to weigh themselves to assess fluid losses during training and racing and limit weight losses to 1% during exercise lasting longer than 1.5?h. Excessive fluid intake has been associated with hyponatremia. Post exercise the volume of fluid ingested and sodium intake are important determinants of rehydration. 相似文献
8.
Eleni A. Kortianou Ioannis G. Nasis Stavroula T. Spetsioti Andreas M. Daskalakis Ioannis Vogiatzis 《Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal》2010,21(3):12-19
Physical training is beneficial and should be included in the comprehensive management of all patients with COPD independently of disease severity. Different rehabilitative strategies and training modalities have been proposed to optimize exercise tolerance. Interval exercise training has been used as an effective alternative modality to continuous exercise in patients with moderate and severe COPD.Although in healthy elderly individuals and patients with chronic heart failure there is evidence that this training modality is superior to continuous exercise in terms of physiological training effects, in patients with COPD, there is not such evidence. Nevertheless, in patients with COPD application of interval training has been shown to be equally effective to continuous exercise as it induces equivalent physiological training effects but with less symptoms of dyspnea and leg discomfort during training.The main purpose of this review is to summarize previous studies of the effectiveness of interval training in COPD and also to provide arguments in support of the application of interval training to overcome the respiratory and peripheral muscle limiting factors of exercise capacity. To this end we make recommendations on how best to implement interval training in the COPD population in the rehabilitation setting so as to maximize training effects.Key Words: interval exercise training, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, exercise tolerance, pulmonary rehabilitation 相似文献
9.
Training and nutrition are highly interrelated in that optimal adaptation to the demands of repeated training sessions typically requires a diet that can sustain muscle energy reserves. As nutrient stores (i.e. muscle and liver glycogen) play a predominant role in the performance of prolonged, intense, intermittent exercise typical of the patterns of soccer match-play, and in the replenishment of energy reserves for subsequent training sessions, the extent to which acutely altering substrate availability might modify the training impulse has been a key research area among exercise physiologists and sport nutritionists for several decades. Although the major perturbations to cellular homeostasis and muscle substrate stores occur during exercise, the activation of several major signalling pathways important for chronic training adaptations take place during the first few hours of recovery, returning to baseline values within 24 h after exercise. This has led to the paradigm that many chronic training adaptations are generated by the cumulative effects of the transient events that occur during recovery from each (acute) exercise bout. Evidence is accumulating that nutrient supplementation can serve as a potent modulator of many of the acute responses to both endurance and resistance training. In this article, we review the molecular and cellular events that occur in skeletal muscle during exercise and subsequent recovery, and the potential for nutrient supplementation (e.g. carbohydrate, fat, protein) to affect many of the adaptive responses to training. 相似文献
10.
血乳酸是评价训练负荷强度和专项训练要求最行之有效的指标,训练时测定乳酸值的变化,可以掌握运动强度和训练过程中代谢能力的变化。通过对黑龙江省优秀短道速滑运动员在冰期训练中血乳酸的监控,发现黑龙江省短道速滑运动员在冰期某些有氧耐力训练后的血乳酸偏低,未达到训练效果;在无氧耐力的训练手段中,某些手段处于混氧训练阶段,未能有效提高运动员的无氧能力。整体看短道速滑冰期训练的乳酸值趋势偏低,在今后训练中应进行严格的血乳酸监控,随时调整训练负荷,以使训练达到有效的目的。 相似文献
11.
Ramadan fasting, involving abstinence from fluid and food from sunrise to sundown, results in prolonged periods without nutrient intake and inflexibility with the timing of eating and drinking over the day. Dietary choices may also change due to special eating rituals. Although nutrition guidelines are specific to the sport, to the periodized training and competition calendar, and to the individual, many promote the consumption of carbohydrate and fluid before and during exercise, and consumption of protein, carbohydrate, and fluids soon after the session is completed. Failing to meet overall nutritional needs, or to provide specific nutritional support to a session of exercise, is likely to impair acute performance and reduce the effectiveness of training or recovery. Muslim athletes who fast during Ramadan should use overnight opportunities to consume foods and drinks that can supply the nutrients needed to promote performance, adaptation, and recovery in their sports. Because of the benefits of being able to consume at least some of these nutrients before, during or after an exercise session, the schedule of exercise should be shifted where possible to the beginning or end of the day, or during the evening when some nutritional support can be provided. 相似文献
12.
Joaquin Perez-Schindler D. Lee Hamilton Daniel R. Moore Keith Baar 《European Journal of Sport Science》2015,15(1):41-52
AbstractConcurrent training (the combination of endurance exercise to resistance training) is a common practice for athletes looking to maximise strength and endurance. Over 20 years ago, it was first observed that performing endurance exercise after resistance exercise could have detrimental effects on strength gains. At the cellular level, specific protein candidates have been suggested to mediate this training interference; however, at present, the physiological reason(s) behind the concurrent training effect remain largely unknown. Even less is known regarding the optimal nutritional strategies to support concurrent training and whether unique nutritional approaches are needed to support endurance and resistance exercise during concurrent training approaches. In this review, we will discuss the importance of protein supplementation for both endurance and resistance training adaptation and highlight additional nutritional strategies that may support concurrent training. Finally, we will attempt to synergise current understanding of the interaction between physiological responses and nutritional approaches into practical recommendations for concurrent training. 相似文献
13.
Jan Borms 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(1):3-20
In this paper the complex topic of ‘the child and exercise’ is approached from a multidisciplinary angle. Research concerned with effects of exercise on growth and development is reviewed. In spite of traditional beliefs, there is not enough evidence to support the view that regular and intense physical training promotes an increase in body size, nor is there any physiological evidence that severe training has any harmful effect on the body. Exercise capacity and aerobic power increase gradually throughout childhood. Investigations have shown that children aged 10 years or younger do not react with an increased VO2 max as one would expect from endurance activities. The trainability of endurance seems to depend on the biological maturity level of growing children. After puberty the effects of endurance training are similar to those reported for adults. Just how much physical activity is necessary or optimal during the growing years is not known because individual variation is great. Even fewer results are available on the trainability of anaerobic capacity. The trainability of other factors such as strength, speed, flexibility and coordination is amply discussed. Finally some thoughts are given to young female athletes, both early and late maturers, with respect to their sport performance and expectancies. 相似文献
14.
M. Garcin A. Fleury N. Ansart L. Mille-Hamard V. Billat 《Research quarterly for exercise and sport》2013,84(3):351-361
The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the content of 8 weeks of training in young endurance-trained male and female runners and study the potential impact of this training content on performance. Fourteen men and 11 women performed two criterion exercises until exhaustion on an outdoor track before and after the 8-week training period. The first test was a graded exercise to determine maximal aerobic velocity (Mav), the velocity at the lactate concentration threshold (v-Tlac), and the velocity at delta 50 (vΔ50: the velocity halfway between Mav and v-Tlac). The second test was a constant run at vΔ50 to determine the time to exhaustion at this velocity (tlimvΔ50). Training logs were used to monitor the self-directed training sessions. The results showed that the women had a lower training volume but trained at higher exercise velocities than the men. However, they presented similar values as the men for expected temporary performance capacity and did not improve their performance (Mav and tlimvΔ50) over the 8-week period. After the training period, only v-Tlac (absolute and relative values) was slightly but significantly increased by training. These results could be due to the fact that both men and women did not train more than 10% of the total distance run at exercise velocities equal to or higher than their Mav and did not increase their training load during the 8-week training period. We suggest that changes in training content during the season, such as severe (long-duration or high-intensity) training sessions, may have improved their performance capacity. 相似文献
15.
ABSTRACTExercise at different cadences might serve as potential stimulus for functional adaptations of the brain, because cortical activation is sensitive to frequency of movement. Therefore, we investigated the effects of high (HCT) and low cadence training (LCT) on brain cortical activity during exercise as well as endurance performance.Cyclists were randomly assigned to low and high cadence training. Over the 4-week training period, participants performed 4 h of basic endurance training as well as four additional cadence-specific exercise sessions, 60 min weekly. At baseline and after 4 weeks, participants completed an incremental exercise test with spirometry and exercise at constant load with registration of electroencephalogram (EEG).Compared with LCT, a greater increase of frontal alpha/beta ratio was confirmed in HCT. This was based on a lower level of beta activity during exercise. Both groups showed similar improvements in maximal oxygen consumption and power at the individual anaerobic threshold.Whereas HCT and LCT elicit similar benefits on aerobic performance, cycling at high pedalling frequencies enables participants to perform an exercise bout with less cortical activation. 相似文献
16.
E. V. Lambert J. A. Hawley J. Goedecke T. D. Noakes S. C. Dennis 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(3):315-324
Carbohydrate ingestion before and during endurance exercise delays the onset of fatigue (reduced power output). Therefore, endurance athletes are recommended to ingest diets high in carbohydrate (70% of total energy) during competition and training. However, increasing the availability of plasma free fatty acids has been shown to slow the rate of muscle and liver glycogen depletion by promoting the utilization of fat. Ingested fat, in the form of long-chain (C 16-22 ) triacylglycerols, is largely unavailable during acute exercise, but medium-chain (C 8-10 ) triacylglycerols are rapidly absorbed and oxidized. We have shown that the ingestion of medium-chain triacylglycerols in combination with carbohydrate spares muscle carbohydrate stores during 2 h of submaximal (< 70% VO 2 peak) cycling exercise, and improves 40 km time-trial performance. These data suggest that by combining carbohydrate and medium-chain triacylglycerols as a pre-exercise supplement and as a nutritional supplement during exercise, fat oxidation will be enhanced, and endogenous carbohydrate will be spared. We have also examined the chronic metabolic adaptations and effects on substrate utilization and endurance performance when athletes ingest a diet that is high in fat (> 70% by energy). Dietary fat adaptation for a period of at least 2-4 weeks has resulted in a nearly two-fold increase in resistance to fatigue during prolonged, low- to moderate-intensity cycling (< 70% VO 2 peak). Moreover, preliminary studies suggest that mean cycling 20 km time-trial performance following prolonged submaximal exercise is enhanced by 80 s after dietary fat adaptation and 3 days of carbohydrate loading. Thus the relative contribution of fuel substrate to prolonged endurance activity may be modified by training, pre-exercise feeding, habitual diet, or by artificially altering the hormonal milieu or the availability of circulating fuels. The time course and dose-response of these effects on maximizing the oxidative contribution of fat for exercise metabolism and in exercise performance have not been systematically studied during moderate- to high-intensity exercise in humans. 相似文献
17.
采用文献资料法、逻辑分析法等探究硬地面与非硬地(水中、沙地)界面上进行“plyometric”训练对运动表现与肌肉损伤的影响,并提出运动训练实践建议。研究发现:硬地与水中plyometric训练均可以提高运动表现,且干预效果相似;硬地与沙地进行plyometric训练,均可以提高运动表现,不同的测试指标反向纵跳、蹲跳、垂直跳的干预效果存在异同。水中和沙地相对于硬地面进行plyometric训练可以明显较少训练后肌肉酸痛程度,降低运动损伤风险。硬地面适应机制:肌腱复合体和关节的训练适应机制;神经-肌肉对训练的适用机制等。水中和沙地的适应机制:“离心-向心”转化速度;神经冲动与适应机制等。对运动训练的建议:在水中进行plyometric训练时,水面一般在身体的腰部-胸部位置,水温的选择一般在27°C左右;水中、硬地plyometric训练的干预周期介于6-10周之间,每周干预频率介于2-3次之间;组合界面plyometric训练的相关研究文献较少,需进一步研究论证;当在硬界面时,中等负荷量可诱导出最佳的效果;在进行Plyometric训练时,强度比量更重要,且小强度优于大强度;不同年龄、性别进行Plyometric训练时,要选择适应的训练手段,水中和沙地面可以作为传统训练的替换手段。 相似文献
18.
Garcin M Fleury A Ansart N Mille-Hamard L Billat V 《Research quarterly for exercise and sport》2006,77(3):351-361
The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the content of 8 weeks of training in young endurance-trained male and female runners and study the potential impact of this training content on performance. Fourteen men and 11 women performed two criterion exercises until exhaustion on an outdoor track before and after the 8-week training period. The first test was a graded exercise to determine maximal aerobic velocity (Mav), the velocity at the lactate concentration threshold (v-Tlac), and the velocity at delta 50 (v delta50: the velocity halfway between Mav and v-Tlac). The second test was a constant run at v delta50 to determine the time to exhaustion at this velocity (tlimv delta50). Training logs were used to monitor the self-directed training sessions. The results showed that the women had a lower training volume but trained at higher exercise velocities than the men. However they presented similar values as the men for expected temporary performance capacity and did not improve their performance (Mav and tlimv delta50) over the 8-week period. After the training period, only v-Tlac (absolute and relative values) was slightly but significantly increased by training. These results could be due to the fact that both men and women did not train more than 10% of the total distance run at exercise velocities equal to or higher than their Mav and did not increase their training load during the 8-week training period. We suggest that changes in training content during the season, such as severe (long-duration or high-intensity) training sessions, may have improved their performance capacity. 相似文献
19.
目的:对赛前专项训练进行监控,为提高专项训练水平提供依据。方法:以22名优秀男子手球运动员为研究对象,对赛前专项训练手段进行心率和乳酸的监控,阶段训练后评价专项无氧能力训练效果。结果:1)3种教赛负荷强度不同。2)全场抢7分训练课的全场平均心率为155.1b/min。3)攻防转换训练课的平均心率为156.9b/min。4)300m×4间歇跑的乳酸峰值达13.7716.26mmol/L。5)专项综合训练课的平均心率为120.3b/min。6)阶段训练后,队员的最大功率、平均功率显著提高。结论:1)教赛3达到比赛强度。2)全场抢7分能提高队员强对抗条件下的快速得分能力。3)攻防转换训练对提高队员的攻防转换速度有较好的作用。4)300m×4间歇跑训练对提高运动员糖酵解供能能力有较好的作用。5)专项综合训练课不利于运动员发展强对抗条件下的技战术能力。6)赛前大强度训练对提高队员的无氧能力有比较好的作用。 相似文献
20.
Building muscle: nutrition to maximize bulk and strength adaptations to resistance exercise training
《European Journal of Sport Science》2013,13(2):67-76
Abstract Several nutritional strategies can optimize muscle bulk and strength adaptations and enhance recovery from heavy training sessions. Adequate energy intake to meet the needs of training and carbohydrate intake sufficient to maintain glycogen stores (>7 g carbohydrate·kg?1·day?1 for women; >8 g carbohydrate·kg?1·day?1 for men) are important. Dietary protein intake for top sport athletes should include some foods with high biological value, with a maximum requirement of approximately 1.7 g·kg?1·day?1 being easily met with an energy sufficient diet. The early provision of carbohydrate (>1 g·kg?1) and protein (>10 g) early after an exercise session will enhance protein balance and optimize glycogen repletion. Creatine monohydrate supplementation over several days increases body mass through water retention and can increase high-intensity repetitive ergometer performance. Creatine supplementation can enhance total body and lean fat free mass gains during resistance exercise training; however, strength gains do not appear to be enhanced versus an optimal nutritional strategy (immediate post-exercise protein and carbohydrate). Some studies have suggested that β-OH-methyl butyric acid (β-HMB) can enhance gains made through resistance exercise training; however, it has not been compared “head to head” with optimal nutritional practices. Overall, the most effective way to increase strength and bulk is to perform sport-specific resistance exercise training with the provision of adequate energy, carbohydrate, and protein. Creatine monohydrate and β-HMB supplementation may enhance the strength gains made through training by a small margin but the trade-off is likely to be greater bulk, which may be ergolytic for any athlete participating in a weight-supported activity. 相似文献