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1.
Research shows that multiple representations can enhance student learning. Many curricula use multiple representations across multiple task types. The temporal sequence of representations and task types is likely to impact student learning. Research on contextual interference shows that interleaving learning tasks leads to better learning results than blocked practice, but this research has not investigated whether it matters on which dimension we interleave learning tasks. Many educational materials include multiple task types and multiple representations. Should we interleave representations or task types? We conducted a classroom experiment to investigate the effects of interleaving task types (while blocking representations) and interleaving representations (while blocking task types). The participants (158 5th- and 6th-graders) worked with a corresponding version of an intelligent tutoring system for fractions. Our results show an advantage for interleaving task types over interleaving representations. These results extend prior work on contextual interference by showing that this effect is sensitive to the dimension being interleaved. We also extend the literature on learning with multiple representations by investigating the effect of interleaved practice with different representations. The results provide guidance to designers of complex curricula.  相似文献   

2.
By using the eye‐tracking method, the present study explores whether working memory capacity assessed via the second language (L2) reading span (L2WMC) as well as the operational span task (OSPAN) affects the processing of subject‐extraction and object‐extraction in Chinese–English bilinguals. Results showed that L2WMC has no effects on the grammatical judgement accuracies, the first fixation duration, gaze duration, go‐past times and total fixation duration of the critical regions in wh‐extractions. In contrast, OSPAN influences the first fixation duration and go‐past times of the critical regions in wh‐extractions. Specifically, in region 1, (e.g., Who do you think loved the comedian [region 1] with [region 2] all his heart [subject‐extraction]? versus Who do you think the comedian loved [region 1] with [region 2] all his heart? [object‐extraction]), participants with high OSPAN were much slower than those with low OSPAN in their first fixation duration in reading subject‐extractions, whereas there were no differences between participants with different OSPANs in reading object‐extractions. In region 2, participants with high OSPAN were much faster than those with low OSPAN in their go‐past times of object‐extractions. These results indicated that individual differences in OSPAN rather than in L2WMC more strongly affect processing of wh‐extractions. Thus, OSPAN results to be more suitable to explore the influences of working memory while processing L2 sentences with complex syntax, at least for intermediate proficient bilinguals. Results of the study also provide further support for the Capacity Theory of Comprehension.  相似文献   

3.
This study starts with investigating the relation of perceived workload, motivation for learning and working memory capacity (WMC) with students’ approaches to learning. Secondly, this study investigates if differences exist between different student profiles concerning their approach to the learning and the influence of workloads thereon. Results show a relation for workload and motivation but not for WMC. By means of a cluster analysis, three student profiles were identified based on WMC and motivation. Students characterised by high WMC and average motivation scored higher on surface approaches and lower on deep approaches than students with high autonomous motivation. These latter students also score higher on deep approaches than students characterised by low WMC. Finally, it was found that all student profiles responded the same to the influence of workload. In contrast with prior research, deep approaches were higher when the workload was higher.  相似文献   

4.
The effect of noncontingent outcomes on an instrumental response-outcome (R-O) association was examined in four experiments using transfer tests. In each experiment, rats were first given instrumental discrimination training designed to establish different stimuli as signals (S+s) for different outcomes. Transfer responses were subjected to different treatments across the experiments and then tested with the S+s. In Experiments 1 and 2, two transfer responses were both initially trained with two contingent outcomes. Then, each transfer response was subjected either to the addition of noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes (Experiment 1) or to the replacement of one of the contingent outcomes with noncontingent presentations of that outcome (Experiment 2). Transfer tests revealed no significant difference in the ability of an S+ to promote performance of a transfer response based on their shared association with either the contingent or the noncontingent outcome. These results suggest that a response reinforced with two outcomes remains equally well associated with both of those outcomes despite prolonged exposure to noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes. In Experiments 3 and 4, the possibility that the noncontingent schedules of reinforcement used in Experiments 1 and 2 might be capable of establishing an association between a response and its noncontingent outcome was examined. Transfer responses were trained with one contingent outcome and a different noncontingent outcome. Performance of these transfer responses was augmented more by presentations of an S+ trained with the contingent outcome than with the noncontingent outcome. These results confirm previous reports that instrumental responses are sensitive to outcome contingencies in acquisition and that noncontingent outcome presentations do not weaken previously established R-O associations. Several explanations are considered for the failure of subsequent noncontingent presentations of an outcome to reduce the strength of its association with the instrumental response.  相似文献   

5.
古典经济学家和马克思对等量资本获得等量利润的认识基本上限于对假设数据的分析,其结论并没有得到调查统计资料的证实.国内外有关调查统计资料表明,各部门的实际利润率并不平均.实际利润率受多种作用方向不同的因素影响,有些因素引起利润率平均化,还有些因素引起利润率非平均化.这两种因素的作用部分抵消,其中引起利润率非平均化的因素作用更强,包括企业追求利润最大化的动因和行为、不同部门劳动质量和生产成本差异、生产资本专业化和转移障碍、信息不完全、需求变化对供给变化的抵消作用.这些因素的作用使投入不同部门的等量资本难以获得等量利润.  相似文献   

6.
In this theoretical article, we aim at theorizing the old statement that mathematics teachers might profit from studying the history of mathematics. We do this by drawing upon the theoretical framework of mathematical knowledge for teaching (MKT). A selection of international studies on the history and pedagogy of mathematics is used as starting points for discussing how the different domains of teachers’ MKT—to a larger or smaller degree—can profit from the history of mathematics.  相似文献   

7.
This article is based on research into effective relationships in a nursery school in an urban area. This research was part of a larger research project, between the Manchester Metropolitan University and a Local Authority. The project was concerned with identifying quality care and education (educare) for children under five in a range of educational, social services, voluntary and private establishments. The research was carried out between 1992 and 1994 and involved interviewing the parents of two cohorts of children as well as participants and non‐participant observation in the nursery classrooms. The research findings indicated four categories of practice which contributed towards effective relationships. Aspects of these categories are examined together with examples of questions which practitioners might like to consider in relation to their own school. In conclusion key factors contributing to quality relationships identified in this research are highlighted.  相似文献   

8.
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9.
《Learning and Instruction》2006,16(2):104-121
In two experiments we explored how learning from traditional molar worked-out examples—focusing on problem categories and their associated overall solution procedures—as well as from more efficient modular worked-out examples—where intrinsic cognitive load is reduced by breaking down complex solutions into smaller meaningful solution elements—can be further enhanced. Instructional explanations or self-explanation prompts were administered to increase germane cognitive load. However, both interventions were not effective for learning and prompting for self-explanations even impaired learning with modular examples. In the latter case, prompting might have forced learners to process redundant information, which they had already sufficiently understood.  相似文献   

10.
The involvement of working memory capacity (WMC) in ruled-based cognitive skill acquisition is well-established, but the duration of its involvement and its role in learning strategy selection are less certain. Participants (N = 610) learned four logic rules, their corresponding symbols, or logic gates, and the appropriate input–output combinations in three-gate circuit patterns. Participants practiced 120 repetitions of each rule (480 total gates) over the course of 10 training blocks. Memory load varied between subjects. The confluence of task demands and individual differences in WMC (N = 518) dramatically affected speed–accuracy tradeoffs and strategic use of a computerized help function. Cluster analysis revealed five distinct groups of participants based on the combination of response accuracy, latency, and help use. Some groups with moderate to high mean WMC acquired the task with predictable performance patterns. Other groups, prevalently under a memory load and with low mean WMC, failed to learn or overused help.  相似文献   

11.
Research in multimedia learning lacks an emphasis on individual difference variables, such as working memory capacity (WMC). The effects of WMC and the segmentation of multimedia instruction were examined by assessing the recall and application of low (n=66) and high (n=67) working memory capacity students randomly assigned to either a segmented instruction (SI) or non-segmented instruction (NSI) version of a multimedia tutorial on historical inquiry. WMC was found to have a significant, positive effect on participants' recall and application scores; however, the use of segmentation mediated the effects of WMC to allow learners with lower WMC to recall and apply equal to those with higher WMC.  相似文献   

12.
We investigate the relationship between Need for Cognition (NFC), attitude towards and self-reported application of different desirable difficulties in self-regulated learning. Students with a higher NFC should be more appreciative and prone to use desirable difficulties because of a match between the learner’s attributes and the learning task requirements: cognitively effortful learning conditions will be preferred by students with a higher propensity for cognitive challenges. Supporting our hypotheses, we show that indeed a higher NFC positively relates to attitudes and use of different desirable difficulties (Study 1–2), especially to self-generating of materials and predictions, but weaker and inconsistently to interleaving/spacing and self-testing/practicing. While self-generating of contents and predictions loaded on one factor, and interleaving/spacing together with self-testing/practicing loaded on another factor, this two-factor structure was reliably obtained for self-reported use, yet for attitudes a one-factor structure did fit. Most importantly though, the observed relationship between NFC and different desirable difficulties could neither be explained by high school graduation grade, indicating academic competence (Study 1), nor by academic self-concept as one’s perception of one’s academic abilities (Study 2). Results are discussed within an information-processing framework related to implications for desirable difficulties as learning strategies.  相似文献   

13.
Most metacognition research has focused on aggregate judgments of overall performance or item-level judgments about performance on particular questions. However, metacognitive judgments at the category level, which have not been as extensively explored, also play a role in students’ study strategies, for example, when students determine what topics to study for an exam. We investigated whether category learning judgments (CLJs) were sensitive to differences in the difficulty of general knowledge categories. After either studying or being tested on facts from several categories (e.g., Shakespeare, Astronomy), participants estimated the likelihood that they could correctly answer new questions from those categories on a later test (i.e., they made CLJs). Results of two studies showed that CLJs were sensitive to differences in category difficulty. Further, participants gave lower or more conservative CLJs when they took an initial test as compared to studying questions from the categories. Results are discussed in terms of the value and relevance of CLJs both in educational settings and in theories of metacognition.  相似文献   

14.
Recent research has shown that learning from worked-out examples is of major importance for initial skill acquisition in well-structured domains such as mathematics. However, only those learners who actively process the presented examples profit noticeably from this learning mode. Specifically, the learning outcomes depend on how well the learners explain the solution steps presented in the examples to themselves (‘self-explanation effect”). In a series of studies on learning mathematics from examples, learners’ spontaneous self-explanations and instructional means used to encourage self-explanations were investigated. In this research, the following main findings were obtained. Most learners were rather passive with respect to their spontaneous self-explanations. Among the active and successful learners, two subgroups employing different self-explanation styles could be identified. With regard to the instructional means used to induce effective example processing, it turned out that to employ “learning by teaching” in order to stimulate explanation activities was of very limited use. Attempts to directly train for or elicit certain types of self-explanations were more successful. However, even in the latter case, self-explanations had inherent deficits (e.g., proneness to errors). Thus, we sought to design learning arrangements that try to integrate self-explanations with well-timed and well-adapted instructional explanations (e.g., from tutors) in order to enhance students’ problem-solving skills.  相似文献   

15.
ABSTRACT

Due to myriad applications of the nominal group technique (NGT), a highly flexible iterative focus group method, researchers know little about its optimal scoring procedures. Exploring benefits and biases that such procedures might present, we aim to clarify how NGT scoring systems can privilege consensus or prioritization. In conducting the first study both to feature NGT data from the same participants at multiple time points or to compare scoring procedures with actual, not simulated, data, we found clear differences between consensus (ratings) and prioritization (rankings) scoring schemata’s abilities to discriminate categories. We recommend that NGT users (1) state whether they intend to emphasize consensus, prioritization, or both; (2) name their scoring schema and explain it mathematically; and (3) detail implications of their choices. We also discuss uses of NGT as a research tool, especially for global citizenship education including study-abroad programmes in contexts where reliable access to electricity and/or the internet may be challenging.  相似文献   

16.
We investigated example choice as a new method for the teaching of formal theoretical principles. Formal principles are presented with several examples from different topics, and students choose the one that interests them most. Example choice might be related to prior knowledge, interest, or perceived control. In an experimental study, we examined the effects of degree of example choice and degree of prior knowledge on interest, perceived control, and learning outcomes in a presentation on confirmation bias. The main finding was that participants who could choose an example showed more interest in the presentation of the formal principle than participants who either were given an example by the experimenter or only saw the presentation. Control was lowest for the group without example choice and without prior knowledge. Finally, prior knowledge, but not example choice, increased performance on a transfer of knowledge task. Example choice thus offers a new approach for closing the gap between formal principles as presented at school and a student's interests.  相似文献   

17.
It is usually assumed that successful problemsolving in knowledge-rich domains depends onthe availability of abstract problem-typeschemas whose acquisition can be supported bypresenting students with worked examples.Conventionally designed worked examples oftenfocus on information that is related to themain components of problem-type schemas, namelyon information related to problem-categorymembership, structural task features, andcategory-specific solution procedures. However,studying these examples might be cognitivelydemanding because it requires learners tosimultaneously hold active a substantial amountof information in working memory. In ourresearch, we try to reduce intrinsic cognitiveload in example-based learning by shifting thelevel of presenting and explaining solutionprocedures from a `molar' view – that focuseson problem categories and their associatedoverall solution procedures – to a more`modular' view where complex solutions arebroken down into smaller meaningful solutionelements that can be conveyed separately. Wereview findings from five of our own studiesthat yield evidence for the fact thatprocessing modular examples is associated witha lower degree of intrinsic cognitive load andthus, improves learning.  相似文献   

18.
Three experiments report developmental change in infants' tendency to parse exemplars into separate categories. In Experiment 1, a familiarization-novelty preference procedure was used. Fifty-four 4-, 7-, and 10-month-old infants were familiarized with members of two basic-level animal categories (cats and horses) and tested with novel members of the familiarized categories and with members of a third category (dogs). In Experiment 2, a habituation-dishabituation procedure was used. Forty-eight 7- and 10-month-old infants were habituated to examples of both male and female faces and tested with novel gender-typical and gender-ambiguous faces. In both experiments, 10-month-old infants appeared to form differentiated categories, whereas younger infants formed a single category to include the range of items presented during familiarization. Experiment 3 ruled out a priori stimulus preferences as an explanation for the 10-month findings in Experiment 2.  相似文献   

19.
Goal neglect is the phenomenon of failing to execute the momentary demands of a task despite understanding and being able to recall the task instructions. Successful goal maintenance is more likely to occur in adults with high working memory capacity (WMC) who can keep rules mentally accessible while performing the task. The current study predicted that goal neglect would also be related to WMC in children. It assessed thirty-seven 4-year-old and twenty-eight 6-year-old children on the goal neglect version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort, and 3 tasks that measure WMC. As predicted, children with higher WMC scores were more likely to maintain goals adequately for task performance. The findings are consistent with a 2-factor model of working memory and its development.  相似文献   

20.
In three experiments, we sought evidence for the acquired equivalence of cues in pigeons trained in an autoshaping paradigm. In Experiment 1, presentations of each of a pair of cues (different keylight stimuli) preceded a common consequence (a different keylight stimulus). The pattern of response then established by further training given to one member of the pair was found to generalize preferentially to the other, demonstrating equivalence between cues that had shared a common consequence. The same test procedure was used in Experiment 2, but with a training procedure in which each cue of a pair was preceded by a given stimulus. This too resulted in enhanced generalization between members of the pair, showing that equivalence can be established when cues have been experienced along with a common antecedent. Both training procedures were combined in Experiment 3 to confirm the reliability of the effects previously obtained. The discussion is focused on ways in which the associative explanation offered for cases of equivalence mediated by a common consequence might be extended to accommodate equivalence mediated by a common antecedent.  相似文献   

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