水仙花     

Robert Clinton 《海外英语》2003,(6):35

Early in his childhood, as soon as he was able to speak, he was asked what kind of face he would like to have. They agreed when he said he' d like to have a blue face like his mother, who had hers from being born in the sea. Pith(抽去;杀死) from the claws of a certain bird furnished the dye, which he let the nurse wipe over his brow and cheeks. Soon his face was blue and stayed blue; and although no one said it to him, everyone thought he was a beautiful boy.  相似文献   

Spontaneous recovery of instrumental discriminative responding     

Robert A. Rescorla 《Learning & behavior》1997,25(4):485-497

In six experiments, rats received discriminative training in which making a response (R) during a stimulus (S) produced a particular outcome (O). In Experiment 1, that outcome was replaced by a second outcome and responding was tested either immediately or after a delay. More substantial responding was observed with the delayed test. In Experiment 2, a test of transfer to new responses suggested that the growth in performance was not attributable to greater use of particular S-O associations. However, in Experiment 3, the growth in responding was found to be specific to particular S-R combinations. Experiment 4 replicated that specificity and demonstrated the importance of using two different outcomes for obtaining the growth in responding with time. Experiments 5 and 6 repeated these observations for the case of extinction, in which O was replaced by nonreinforcement. These results are interpreted as suggesting that an outcome-independent inhibitory S-R process develops, both with extinction and with the use of a second outcome, but dissipates with time.  相似文献   

Teaching the Use of Complex IT in Specific Domains: Developing, Assessing and Refining a Curriculum Development Framework     

John P. Dougherty  Ned F. Kock  Cheryl Sandas  Robert M. Aiken 《Education and Information Technologies》2002,7(2):137-154

Information technology holds the promise of increased productivity. However, rapidly evolving tools require a professional able to incorporate these tools into their careers effectively, which signals the need for IT curriculum development initiatives that incorporate the use of complex, domain-specific IT applications in specific professional fields. This paper reports on a study that addresses this need, by developing, assessing and refining a curriculum development framework. The Information Technology Fluency (ITF) framework is a methodology for constructing components (case studies) for inclusion into existing or newly proposed courses to help students develop the skills needed for this challenge. Results obtained using the framework are reported, compared to similar work at a different institution, and used to suggest improvements to the framework.  相似文献   

Integrating Cognitive and Psychometric Models to Measure Document Literacy     

Kathleen Sheehan  Robert J. Mislevy 《Journal of Educational Measurement》1990,27(3):255-272

The Survey of Young Adult Literacy conducted in 1985 by the National Assessment of Educational Progress included 63 items that elicited skills in acquiring and using information from written documents. These items were analyzed using two different models: (1) a qualitative cognitive model, which characterized items in terms of the processing tasks they required, and (2) an item response theory (IRT) model, which characterized items difficulties and respondents' proficiencies simply by tendencies toward correct response. This paper demonstrates how a generalization of Fischer and Seheibleehner's Linear Logistic Test Model can be used to integrate information from the cognitive analysis into the IRT analysis, providing a foundation for subsequent item construction, test development, and diagnosis of individuals skill deficiencies.  相似文献   

The assessment of teaching in higher education: A critical retrospect and a proposal     

Henry C. Johnson Jr.  Dent M. Rhodes  Robert E. Rumery 《Higher Education》1975,4(2):173-199

Evaluation of college and university teaching is considered in the context of growing demands for accountability of educational institutions and particular roles of faculty in achieving goals for which these institutions are believed to be accountable. In the first of two papers,^* three contemporary aprroaches to evaluation of teaching in higher education are critically reviewed. All three of these approaches-assessment of learning outcomes, assessment of teacher characteristics and analysis of pedagogical behaviors-are found to be defective on logical, theoretical and empirical grounds. A common thread of deficiency is the absence of a coherent theoretical framework for analysis of teaching and phenomena associated with teaching. Specific defecs are analyzed in each of the three approaches as well as in the ubiquitous methodology of rating of teaching performance. In analysis of evaluation by assessment of learning outcomes, teaching is shown to be neither necessary nor sufficient to subsequent learning outcomes. Assessment of teacher characteristics fails to identify those characteristics peculiarly indigenous to teaching as a generic activity. Analysis of pedagogical behaviors fails to distinguish critical teaching acts from more general teacher characteristics interpretable in terms of teacher personality. Furthermore, no adequate basis is provided for normative interpretation of data pertaining to pedagogical behaviors. The use of rating scales to provide data about teacher characteristics or pedagogical behavior rests on assumed rather than demonstrated validity of results. Evidence of validity or meaningfulness is replaced by evidence of consistency which is often spurious. The first paper concludes with an outline of requirements for a more constructive approach to the task of teacher evaluation. In a second paper, an outline of a theory of teaching is sketched which conforms to these requirements. Realization of this theoretical structure in teaching assessment report forms is described. Tentative conclusions from trial use of forms-in-development and recommendations for additional data sources are discussed in terms of their potential contribution to improvement in teaching.  相似文献   

The detection and correction of bias in student ratings of instruction     

Thomas Haladyna  Robert K. Hess 《Research in higher education》1994,35(6):669-687

With the use of surveys of instructional effectiveness that use Likert rating scales, bias is a potential threat to the validity of interpretations. Simple summation of ratings or the use of larger samples are not methods for removing bias. In this study, a new model for scaling ratings is examined. The method both identifies and corrects for bias. Working with a database of student ratings of college instruction, the model was tested in terms of a variety of criteria. Results indicated that bias was detected and that it was large enough to warrant our concern. The statistical corrections were significant both in terms of order and magnitude of class means. Implications for future studies include the specification of more potential sources of bias, the interaction of some of these factors, and the development of more systematic evidence supporting the need to be attentive to bias. The many-faceted Rasch model used in this study needs more evaluation before we are convinced of its utility to study and correct for bias, but preliminary evidence is encouraging. Recommendations were offered for a theoretical rationale for studying bias in student ratings of instructional effectiveness and a program of research leading to the use of this model for reporting results for use in improving instruction and for promotion, tenure, and merit decisions. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta April 1993.  相似文献   

The British University Grants Committee 1919–83: Changing relationships with government and the universities     

Michael Shattock  Robert Berdahl 《Higher Education》1984,13(5):471-499

Since its creation in 1919 the University Grants Committee (UGC) has been seen in Britain and many other countries as a model piece of machinery for channelling funds from Government to universities. Over these 60 years there have been many changes and fluctuations in its relationships both with Government and universities, and its effectiveness has varied, depending on the circumstances of the period.Up till World War II the UGC achieved its purpose of serving as a buffer or shock absorber (UGC, 1968). These metaphors picture a largely reactive body responding to initiatives either by Government or the universities. After the Second World War there were calls for the UGC to play a more positive role in university development and national planning and its terms of reference were changed. The UGC's response to this change has been variable and only in the period post 1979 has it consistently played the broader role envisaged for it in 1946 although its rhetoric claimed this role for it in the 1960s. This more active role in the 1980s has brought mixed reactions: more respect from the Government but more criticism from the universities.Insofar as this criticism relates to the processes used by the UGC during its selective retrenchment activities (1981–83), these could be improved by a strengthened UGC; insofar as the criticisms relate to the basic idea of a committee composed primarily of academics apparently aiding and abetting a Government's policy to cut back higher education, the future viability of the UGC idea itself is called into question.Another variable in the UGC's future is connected with the recently created National Advisory Board for Local Authority Higher Education (NAB). Discussions have ranged widely over the future options for the coordination of higher education: a merger of the two bodies, their separate development or creation of an overarching body over both sectors and their respective agencies. For the moment, however, the continued existence of the UGC represents an extraordinary example of institutional longevity over a period when immense changes have occurred in British society, the machinery of Government, and the British education system.  相似文献   

Elementary school quality,the mathematics curriculum and the role of local knowledge     

Robert Balfanz 《International Review of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft/Revue internationale l'éducation》1990,36(1):43-56

This article uses data from several elementary school classrooms in Chicago on how students learn to calculate, and reviews similar data from a number of developing countries to examine the strengths and limitations of using the mathematical knowledge which students develop on their own outside of formal schooling to increase the amount, range and power of mathematical knowledge which is acquired through formal schooling. In so doing it attempts to reconcile the views of those who believe that the key to improving elementary school quality lies in improving the technology of instruction and those who believe that it lies in a deeper understanding of the mental life of children. It concludes by arguing that the quality of elementary schooling can be improved through skilled management of the environmentally acquired knowledge which students bring to instruction, if this knowledge is transformed through pedagogic and curricular interventions into a set of portable intellectual skills.

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Zusammenfassung In diesem Artikel werden Daten von einigen Chicagoer Grundschulklassen zu den von Schülern zum Rechnenlernen benutzten Methoden verwertet. Anhand ähnlicher Daten aus einigen Entwicklungsländern wird überprüft, ob es von Vorteil oder Nachteil ist, das außerhalb des Schulunterrichts entwickelte mathematische Wissen zu verwenden, um den Umfang, die Reichweite und die Fähigkeit des durch die formale Bildung gewonnenen Wissens zu erweitern. Dadurch wird versucht, die oft vertretene Meinung, der Schlüssel zur Qualitätsverbesserung in den Grundschulen läge in der Verbesserung der Instruktionstechnologien mit dem Standpunkt derjenigen in Einklang zu bringen, die glauben, es läge am tieferen Verständnis der Denkweise von Kindern. Der Artikel schließt mit dem Argument, daß die Qualität des Grundschulunterrichts durch geschicktes Handhaben des durch die Umwelt erworbenen Wissens, das die Schüler zum Lernen anregt, verbessert werden kann, wenn dieses Wissen durch pädagogische und curriculare Mitsprache in eine Reihe tragbarer intellektueller Fähigkeiten verwandelt wird.

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Résumé Le présent article se sert des données fournies par plusieurs classes élémentaires de Chicago sur la manière dont les élèves apprennent à calculer, et examine les données similaires de plusieurs pays en développement pour analyser les points forts et les points faibles de l'exploitation des connaissances en mathématiques que les élèves acquièrent seuls en dehors de l'école formelle pour renforcer la quantité, la portée et l'intensité du savoir mathématique qui est acquis à l'école formelle. Pour ce faire, on tente de rapprocher les vues de ceux qui croient que la clé de l'amélioration de la qualité de l'école élémentaire réside dans l'amélioration de la technologie et de ceux qui pensent qu'elle réside plutôt dans une plus grande compréhension de la vie mentale des enfants. L'auteur de cet article conclut en montrant que la qualité de l'enseignement fondamental peut être améliorée grâce à une gestion experte du savoir acquis localement que les élèves apportent dans leur éducation, à condition que ce savoir puisse être transformé par des interventions pédagogiques et curriculaires en une série de compétences intellectuelles valables.

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Race,academic achievement,and self-concept of ability     

Robert Lay  Julie Wakstein 《Research in higher education》1985,22(1):43-64

In the year-and-a-half since the College Board released detailed tables on SAT scores by race, much of the heated reaction has now abated. This study explores the data behind those tables and seeks a fuller explanation of the observed differences in SAT scores among racial and ethnic segments of college-bound test takers. It highlights a social psychological correlate that mediates between environmental factors and SAT performance, beginning with the finding that blacks at the same level of test performance exhibit greater self-esteem than whites on a series of self-rated abilities. Implications of the analysis are discussed and directions for further research suggested.Presented at the 24th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research, Fort Worth, Texas, May 1984.  相似文献   

Families as Educators for Global Citizenship: Five conundrums of intentional socialization     

Robert N. Rapoport† 《International Journal of Early Years Education》1997,5(1):67-77

An international multidisciplinary Symposium on ‘Families as Educators for Global Citizenship’ was held in Budapest in December 1994, jointly convened by the Institute of Family & Environmental Research (London) and the Hungarian Sociological Association.

We based our work on two propositions: first, that families everywhere socialize their offspring for the norms and behaviour valued in their social systems; and second, that there are major changes going on a ‘global’ scale which are relevant to current socialization practices. We asked how changes in global culture and values impact on families and how families are responding. In the light of the importance of these questions and the sparseness of reliable answers, we suggest the need for research on families and the teaching/learning of social values: 1. How do families actually teach values: how much of it is intentional instruction, how much inadvertent teaching, as in association with language teaching and non‐intentional modelling ?

2. How do families reconcile their local traditional values with those emerging as part of global culture (i.e. the humanistic values of universal human rights, gender equity, respect for the environment, non‐violent conflict resolution and diversity).

3. How are personal identities formed which incorporate a global dimension, and how are conflicts in multiple identities (local, national, regional global) managed?

It is recognized that at present it is probably a minority interest to undertake intentional socialization for global values. However, we suggest that it will be increasingly recognized as important. For families seeking to instill such values, a number of conundrums are apparent. We have identified five for preliminary analysis.

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