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1.
2 studies tested the hypothesis that infant smile production depends on the availability of a social recipient for the facial signal, as well as on appropriate internal events. We examined the effects of attentive and inattentive, familiar and unfamiliar social objects on smile production in 1 1/2-year-old infants outside of social interactions. Like adults, these infants directed a majority of the smiles produced during nonsocial activity to an attentive social object. Overall smiling frequency was much lower when the only potential recipient (the mother) was inattentive, but the effect did not appear to be mediated by negative emotion. Only smiles directed to mother were reduced: nonsocial smiling (at the toys) was not sensitive to mother's inattention, and when an attentive, friendly stranger was present, she was accepted as a substitute target for social smiles. We conclude that an open channel of social communication promotes the outward expression of internal affect in infants. 相似文献
2.
Infants' interactions with mother, sibling, and peer: contrasts and relations between interaction systems 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
The role of the mother in structuring interactions with the infant during free play was examined at 6 and 9 months. Maternal scaffolding of turn-taking exchanges was then contrasted to the forms of turn-taking apparent in sibling-infant and peer-infant observations. Infants spent more time in turn-taking exchanges with their mothers than with their siblings or peers. These exchanges most often took the form of mothers creating sequences by responding to infants' social and nonsocial acts and by eliciting social and nonsocial responses from the infants. Infants' exchanges with older siblings were briefer and more typically involved the older children eliciting nonsocial responses from the infants but not responding contingently to the infants' interests and actions. Infant peers spent less time in turn-taking exchanges, and their interactions showed less evidence of scaffolding. At the same time, the proportion of strictly social interactions was greatest with peers. Relations were apparent between infants' turn-taking experiences with their mothers and the infants' subsequent interactions with their siblings and with their peers. Relations were also found between infants' interaction experiences with their older siblings and subsequent peer interaction. Those infants with more extensive turn-taking experience with more skilled social partners were subsequently observed to engage in more extensive turn-taking interactions with a peer. These results are discussed in terms of studies on mother-infant attachment and peer competence, maternal scaffolding, and Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. 相似文献
3.
《Learning and individual differences》2005,15(3):213-222
Because the rewards of academic performance in college are often delayed, the delay-discounting model of impulsiveness (Ainslie (1975) [Ainslie, G. Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin, 82 (4), 463–496] predicts that academic performance should tend to decrease as people place less weight on future outcomes. To test this hypothesis, we estimated (hyperbolic) discount rates for real delayed monetary rewards (US$10 to US$20) using second-price auction procedures with 247 undergraduates at two liberal arts colleges. College GPA was reliably correlated with discount rates, r=−.19 (p=.003), and remained reliable after partialling out SAT scores. The results add to the external validity of the discounting model of impulsiveness, and point to a possible contributor to academic performance of interest in the study of higher education. 相似文献
4.
Two experiments tested the effects of food deprivation on discounting in pigeons. An adjusting-amount procedure was used to estimate the subjective value of food at delays ranging from 1 to 24 s. Experiment 1 compared pigeons’ discounting of delayed food reinforcers at 75 %–80 % and 90 %–95 % of free-feeding weight. Experiment 2 compared discounting under 1- and 23-h food deprivation. In both experiments at both deprivation levels, discounting was well described by the hyperboloid discounting function. No systematic effect of level of deprivation on degree of discounting was observed in either experiment. This finding is consistent with the view that pigeons’ choices are controlled by the relative, rather than the absolute, value of reinforcers. 相似文献
5.
Previous research has extensively evaluated the impact of delay on the value of positive reinforcers, but the study of its impact on the value of aversive consequences is scarce. The present study employed a modification of Evenden and Ryan’s procedure (1996, Psychopharmacology, 128(2), 161–170) to obtain data on temporal discounting of an aversive consequence, with rats as experimental subjects. In the first phase of the procedure, rats chose between one-pellet and four-pellet alternatives; when subjects developed preference for the larger-amount alternative, a shock was added to it, resulting in a loss of preference. In the first experimental condition, the delay to shock was progressively increased within each session from zero to 40 s (ascending delays), which resulted in a recovery of the preference for the larger-amount + shock alternative as the delay to shock was increased. In a subsequent condition (descending delays) the delay to shock was progressively decreased within each session, from 40 to 0 s. In both conditions, the preference for the smaller-amount no-shock alternative was well described by a hyperbolic function. The order of presentation of the delays within the session, ascending or descending, did not alter the relationship between preference and delay to shock. The temporal discounting curve obtained in the present study could represent a baseline for analyzing the impact that diverse environmental and pharmacological variables have on the temporal discounting of aversive consequences. 相似文献
6.
The primary aim of the present study was to examine longitudinal models to determine the function that best describes developmental change in processing speed during childhood and adolescence. In one sample, children and adolescents (N= 503) were tested twice over an average interval of 2 years on two psychometric measures of processing speed: Visual Matching and Cross Out. In another sample, children and adolescents (N= 277) were tested four times, every 6 months, on Cross Out. Age-related changes in performance on both tasks were examined using six longitudinal models representing different hypotheses of growth. Linear, hyperbolic, inverse regression, and transition models yielded relatively poor fit to the data; the fit of the exponential and quadratic models was substantially better. The heuristic value of these latter models is discussed. 相似文献
7.
Matching the timing of one's movements to the movements of others has been proposed to increase affiliation and prosociality. Although coordinated movements facilitate early social interactions, not much is known about the mechanisms and effects of movement synchrony throughout development. Two studies investigated 12‐month‐olds' (Study 1, N = 40) and 9‐month‐olds' (Study 2, N = 41) preferences for synchronous others in a social as opposed to a nonsocial context. It was found that movement synchrony exclusively guides infants' social choices at 12 months. In contrast, 9‐month‐olds did not show any preferences for synchronous movements in social or nonsocial contexts. Results suggest that movement synchrony is important in guiding infants' social preferences and its effects emerge toward the end of the 1st year of life. 相似文献
8.
3 experiments with 3-month-old infants compared the effects of contingent and noncontingent adult-infant social interactions on subsequent infant-controlled habituation and choice tasks. Infants who experienced a prior noncontingent social interaction tended to adopt response strategies that reduced the density of stimulation during these subsequent nonsocial tasks. The results are discussed in terms of their generality and the types of mechanisms that might mediate these transfer effects from social to nonsocial procedures. 相似文献
9.
The peer relations of mildly delayed and nonhandicapped preschool children in mainstreamed playgroups 总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4
Previously unacquainted groups of normally developing and mildly developmentally delayed preschool-age boys (N = 64) were brought together to form a series of 8 mainstreamed playgroups. Each playgroup consisted of 3 normally developing 3-year-olds, 3 normally developing 4-year-olds, and 2 mildly developmentally delayed 4-year-olds. The delayed children were matched with the normally developing older group for chronological age and with the normally developing younger group for developmental level. Each playgroup operated 5 days per week for 2 hours per day for a 4-week period. During that time, the peer-related social and play interactions of each child were videotaped, and peer sociometric ratings were obtained at the completion of each playgroup. Analyses of social participation and individual social behavior measures revealed that the analogue playgroup setting was appropriate for evaluating peer interactions, as expected developmental patterns emerged despite the presence of children heterogeneous with respect to chronological age and developmental status. The existence of a deficit in peer-related social interactions for mildly delayed children was supported in this investigation--a deficit that could not be attributed to reputational factors, the unavailability of responsive peers, inadequate matching procedures, unusual sample characteristics, or similar factors. Selected observational measures, peer preference patterns during free play, and peer sociometric ratings also indicated that the delayed children were perceived to be less competent and of lower social status. However, despite their relative isolation, important developmental opportunities were available for mildly delayed children in the mainstreamed playgroups. Possible processes responsible for these outcomes were discussed. 相似文献
10.
11.
In this study, we examined whether reward contrast influences choice between delayed and probabilistic outcomes. Specifically,
we predicted that the subjective value of an intermediate reward would seem relatively larger or smaller, respectively, if
it followed choices involving a smaller or larger reward and would produce corresponding changes in rates of delay and probability
discounting. In Experiment 1, subjects made choices about hypothetical 5,000 or5,000 or 50 outcomes and then made choices about
500 outcomes. Delay-discounting rates for the500 outcomes. Delay-discounting rates for the 500 outcome were larger for Group 5,000 than for Group5,000 than for Group 50, whereas the opposite
result was obtained for probability-discounting rates. In Experiment 2, we used a design that allowed for contrast effects
to be assessed within subjects. Two groups made choices about delayed or probabilistic rewards. After completing question
blocks in which the amount was 5,000 or5,000 or 50, subjects responded to questions with an intermediate amount (475/475/525). For
Group Delay, the present value of the intermediate reward was greater after the 50 block than after the50 block than after the 5,000 block, whereas
the opposite was obtained for Group Probability. The results from both experiments confirmed the predictions of reward contrast
and suggested that the subjective value of a monetary reward varies inversely with the prior reward amount. 相似文献
12.
One captive adult chimpanzee and 3 adult American black bears were presented with a series of natural category discrimination tasks on a touch-screen computer. This is the first explicit comparison of bear and primate abilities using identical tasks, and the first test of a social concept in a carnivore. The discriminations involved a social relationship category (mother/offspring) and a nonsocial category involving food items. The social category discrimination could be made using knowledge of the overarching mother/offspring concept, whereas the nonsocial category discriminations could be made only by using perceptual rules, such as “choose images that show larger and smaller items of the same type.” The bears failed to show above-chance transfer on either the social or nonsocial discriminations, indicating that they did not use either the perceptual rule or knowledge of the overarching concept of mother/offspring to guide their choices in these tasks. However, at least 1 bear remembered previously reinforced stimuli when these stimuli were recombined, later. The chimpanzee showed transfer on a control task and did not consistently apply a perceptual rule to solve the nonsocial task, so it is possible that he eventually acquired the social concept. Further comparisons between species on identical tasks assessing social knowledge will help illuminate the selective pressures responsible for a range of social cognitive skills. 相似文献
13.
Patterns of Inhibition to the Unfamiliar in Children of Normal and Affectively Ill Mothers 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
Grazyna Kochanska 《Child development》1991,62(2):250-263
Patterns of 2-3 1/2-year-old children's inhibition and their well and depressed mothers' behaviors in nonsocial and social unfamiliar situations were examined in 88 dyads. Type of unfamiliarity was associated with 2 forms of children's inhibition. 4 more specific patterns were identified: in the nonsocial situation, Inhibition to New Environment with Proximity to Mother; in the social situation, Retreat to Mother, Passivity/Withdrawal from a Stranger, and Wary/Timid Response. The unipolar depressed mothers, particularly those who were recently symptomatic and had a history of the most serious illness, had children who were most inhibited. Serious affective impairment was also associated with the least maternal facilitation of the children's approach to the unfamiliar. Boys were more inhibited to a new environment and girls were more inhibited to a new person. Relations between child inhibition and maternal behaviors suggested that for toddlers and their mothers, encounters with the unfamiliar are interactive events. 相似文献
14.
Lorna Arnott 《International Journal of Early Years Education》2013,21(1):97-115
This article describes the formation of children's social interactions around technologies in preschools. This paper presents evidence from a study that explores how 3- to 5-year-old children construct their social interactions through the mediation of their peers while using technological resources. Utilising a systematic and iterative data collection and analysis cycle, children's interactions with 24 technological resources were examined over a nine-month period and across three phases. Findings reveal that children draw on social status roles and technological positions to gain control and influence over technologies and their peers. When combined these roles and positions affect children's agency to determine social interactions around technological resources. In essence, this paper demonstrates that a complex social dynamic, in addition to technological artefacts, shape children's social interactions in contemporary technology-rich preschools. 相似文献
15.
郑珊 《内江师范学院学报》2008,23(8):19-21
为了进一步研究Pochha mmer-Chree方程孤立波解的特性,考虑了Pochhammer-Chree方程广义形式的孤立波解的存在性．运用双曲函数法和指数函数法求出广义Pochhammer-Chree方程的孤立波解,并给出此方程多个新的显式精确孤立波解,表明广义Pochhammer-Chree方程的孤立波解是存在的,也说明双曲函数法和指数函数法是求方程孤立波解的有效工具． 相似文献
16.
为探讨中国大学生课堂媒体多任务行为背后的冲动性机制,采用由经典延时折扣范式改编的课堂假想情景实验考察了101名大学生的课堂发消息行为。拟合分析结果表明大学生课堂发消息行为本质上是一种在即时少量报酬和延迟丰厚报酬间权衡时做出的冲动性的选择。进一步采用曲线下面积辅助分析发现女生比男生更少进行课堂发消息行为,而且女生在有趣课堂中比在枯燥课堂中更少进行课堂发消息行为。文章提供了对于中国大学生课堂媒体多任务行为的行为经济学分析思路。 相似文献
17.
冯素芬 《北京工业职业技术学院学报》2010,9(1):119-121
在经济分析中,效用函数用来描述偏好关系。效用函数的不同形式在不同的实际问题中能起到简化问题的作用。介绍了效用函数的幂函数形式和指数函数形式,讨论它们解决问题的方式。最后讨论了效用函数在购买保险中的应用。 相似文献
18.
Delayed simple discriminations are typically retained more accurately over longer delays by pigeons than are delayed conditional discriminations (e.g., Honig & Wasserman, 1981). In two experiments, we investigated the extent to which trial outcomes contribute to this difference by comparing performances when all trials ended with food reinforcement versus when only half of the trials did. Experiment 1 showed that when food was presented on all trials, contingent upon either pecking or not pecking the test stimulus, levels of retention and rates of forgetting were comparable for these two tasks. By contrast, Experiment 2 showed better retention of delayed simple than delayed conditional discriminations when half of the trials ended with food and the other half in extinction. Furthermore, delayed simple discriminations were retained more accurately with food versus no-food outcomes than with food at the end of every trial, whereas the reverse was true for delayed conditional discriminations. These findings indicate that retention differences between these tasks are another instance of the differential outcomes effect. 相似文献
19.
Play fighting is a common form of play reported among species of mammals, birds, and some other taxa. The competition present in play fighting revolves around gaining some advantage, such as biting a partner without being bitten. The behavior simulated during play fighting need not be restricted to that present in adult serious fighting, but can involve competitive interactions derived from amicable behavior, such as sex and social grooming, or from nonsocial competition, such as predation. What unifies play fighting, irrespective of the functional behavior being simulated, is that it involves some degree of reciprocity, or turn taking, that requires that the competition be attenuated by cooperation. However, there are several different ways in which cooperation can be inserted into playful interactions, and these vary in use across different species. The moderation of competition with cooperation forces animals to monitor their own actions and those of their partners, and this common feature appears to be one vehicle through which the experience of play fighting in the juvenile period can train animals for greater psychological resilience. The monitoring and contextual adjustment of actions influences the development of executive functions of the brain, which, in turn, leads to the development of more adaptable adults. 相似文献
20.
Frequently and accurately discerning others’ thoughts and feelings is associated with multiple valued educational outcomes across an array of settings. Despite its foundational role in social interactions, it is unclear whether individuals can be taught to improve their social perspective taking capacities. This experiment assesses whether a curriculum taught to US Army personnel (N?=?116) improved their social perspective taking prior to deployment. Results showed that participants improved their social perspective taking in three ways: through more accurately detecting biases in others, by generating more initial hypotheses to explain others’ behaviours, and by adapting their hypotheses in the face of new evidence. The curriculum did not affect participants’ perspective taking accuracy on a video measure. We discuss these findings with respect to their implications for other learning environments. 相似文献