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1.
Traditional methods for examining differential item functioning (DIF) in polytomously scored test items yield a single item‐level index of DIF and thus provide no information concerning which score levels are implicated in the DIF effect. To address this limitation of DIF methodology, the framework of differential step functioning (DSF) has recently been proposed, whereby measurement invariance is examined within each step underlying the polytomous response variable. The examination of DSF can provide valuable information concerning the nature of the DIF effect (i.e., is the DIF an item‐level effect or an effect isolated to specific score levels), the location of the DIF effect (i.e., precisely which score levels are manifesting the DIF effect), and the potential causes of a DIF effect (i.e., what properties of the item stem or task are potentially biasing). This article presents a didactic overview of the DSF framework and provides specific guidance and recommendations on how DSF can be used to enhance the examination of DIF in polytomous items. An example with real testing data is presented to illustrate the comprehensive information provided by a DSF analysis.  相似文献   

2.
Cross‐level invariance in a multilevel item response model can be investigated by testing whether the within‐level item discriminations are equal to the between‐level item discriminations. Testing the cross‐level invariance assumption is important to understand constructs in multilevel data. However, in most multilevel item response model applications, the cross‐level invariance is assumed without testing of the cross‐level invariance assumption. In this study, the detection methods of differential item discrimination (DID) over levels and the consequences of ignoring DID are illustrated and discussed with the use of multilevel item response models. Simulation results showed that the likelihood ratio test (LRT) performed well in detecting global DID at the test level when some portion of the items exhibited DID. At the item level, the Akaike information criterion (AIC), the sample‐size adjusted Bayesian information criterion (saBIC), LRT, and Wald test showed a satisfactory rejection rate (>.8) when some portion of the items exhibited DID and the items had lower intraclass correlations (or higher DID magnitudes). When DID was ignored, the accuracy of the item discrimination estimates and standard errors was mainly problematic. Implications of the findings and limitations are discussed.  相似文献   

3.
A questionnaire used in student evaluations of interdisciplinary courses during six semesters contained two Likert items stated in a direct negative mode which were embedded in a questionnaire (14–18 items) in which the remaining items were phrased in a direct positive mode. In the seventh semester and thereafter, the two negative items were restated as direct positive stems. Item‐analysis demonstrated that in the direct negative mode, the two items had low item‐to‐total correlations and that the internal consistency reliability of the sum score could be improved by eliminating the two negatively phrased items. Also, the two negatively worded items defined a separate factor. After they were reworded into a direct positive mode, these two items showed markedly improved item‐to‐total correlations. Moreover, the unique factor disappeared, which suggests that it was a methodological artefact probably attributable to respondent carelessness. Including a few negative items in an otherwise positively stated questionnaire leads to ambiguity of results rather than controlling for response sets. We therefore recommend against the practice.  相似文献   

4.
According to a popular belief, test takers should trust their initial instinct and retain their initial responses when they have the opportunity to review test items. More than 80 years of empirical research on item review, however, has contradicted this belief and shown minor but consistently positive score gains for test takers who changed answers they found to be incorrect during review. This study reanalyzed the problem of the benefits of answer changes using item response theory modeling of the probability of an answer change as a function of the test taker’s ability level and the properties of items. Our empirical results support the popular belief and reveal substantial losses due to changing initial responses for all ability levels. Both the contradiction of the earlier research and support of the popular belief are explained as a manifestation of Simpson’s paradox in statistics.  相似文献   

5.
The alignment of test items to content standards is critical to the validity of decisions made from standards‐based tests. Generally, alignment is determined based on judgments made by a panel of content experts with either ratings averaged or via a consensus reached through discussion. When the pool of items to be reviewed is large, or the content‐matter experts are broadly distributed geographically, panel methods present significant challenges. This article illustrates the use of an online methodology for gauging item alignment that does not require that raters convene in person, reduces the overall cost of the study, increases time flexibility, and offers an efficient means for reviewing large item banks. Latent trait methods are applied to the data to control for between‐rater severity, evaluate intrarater consistency, and provide item‐level diagnostic statistics. Use of this methodology is illustrated with a large pool (1,345) of interim‐formative mathematics test items. Implications for the field and limitations of this approach are discussed.  相似文献   

6.
The examinee‐selected‐item (ESI) design, in which examinees are required to respond to a fixed number of items in a given set of items (e.g., choose one item to respond from a pair of items), always yields incomplete data (i.e., only the selected items are answered and the others have missing data) that are likely nonignorable. Therefore, using standard item response theory models, which assume ignorable missing data, can yield biased parameter estimates so that examinees taking different sets of items to answer cannot be compared. To solve this fundamental problem, in this study the researchers utilized the specific objectivity of Rasch models by adopting the conditional maximum likelihood estimation (CMLE) and pairwise estimation (PE) methods to analyze ESI data, and conducted a series of simulations to demonstrate the advantages of the CMLE and PE methods over traditional estimation methods in recovering item parameters in ESI data. An empirical data set obtained from an experiment on the ESI design was analyzed to illustrate the implications and applications of the proposed approach to ESI data.  相似文献   

7.
AN ITERATIVE ITEM BIAS DETECTION METHOD   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Two strategies for assessing item bias are discussed: methods that compare (transformed) item difficulties unconditional on ability level and methods that compare the probabilities of correct response conditional on ability level. In the present study, the logit model was used to compare the probabilities of correct response to an item by members of two groups, these probabilities being conditional on the observed score. Here the observed score serves as an indicator of ability level. The logit model was iteratively applied: In the Tth iteration, the T items with the highest value of the bias statistic are excluded from the test, and the observed score indicator of ability for the (T + 1)th iteration is computed from the remaining items. This method was applied to simulated data. The results suggest that the iterative logit method is a substantial improvement on the noniterative one, and that the iterative method is very efficient in detecting biased and unbiased items.  相似文献   

8.
Building on previous works by Lord and Ogasawara for dichotomous items, this article proposes an approach to derive the asymptotic standard errors of item response theory true score equating involving polytomous items, for equivalent and nonequivalent groups of examinees. This analytical approach could be used in place of empirical methods like the bootstrap method, to obtain standard errors of equated scores. Formulas are introduced to obtain the derivatives for computing the asymptotic standard errors. The approach was validated using mean‐mean, mean‐sigma, random‐groups, or concurrent calibration equating of simulated samples, for tests modeled using the generalized partial credit model or the graded response model.  相似文献   

9.
Changes to the design and development of our educational assessments are resulting in the unprecedented demand for a large and continuous supply of content‐specific test items. One way to address this growing demand is with automatic item generation (AIG). AIG is the process of using item models to generate test items with the aid of computer technology. The purpose of this module is to describe and illustrate a template‐based method for generating test items. We outline a three‐step approach where test development specialists first create an item model. An item model is like a mould or rendering that highlights the features in an assessment task that must be manipulated to produce new items. Next, the content used for item generation is identified and structured. Finally, features in the item model are systematically manipulated with computer‐based algorithms to generate new items. Using this template‐based approach, hundreds or even thousands of new items can be generated with a single item model.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract

Positive student attitude towards peer assessment can be demonstrated through high-quality peer assessment activities. Research findings on students’ attitudes before and after such activities were mixed. This study was conducted using a mixed-methods approach to investigate the underlying factors influencing students’ attitude change. Participants were students enrolled in an online graduate-level assessment course in the college of education in a university in the southeast United States in the fall of 2017 (N?=?31). Surveys and interviews were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data separately, both of which indicated that perceived accurate and specific feedback tended to help students shift to more positive attitudes towards online peer assessment. In addition, final task score improvement after the activity was correlated with positive attitude change. Qualitative results also identified other factors, such as communication with the peers’ work and logistic concerns. The current study offers insights for researchers and instructors to promote positive attitude changes in online peer assessment activities.  相似文献   

11.
An important assumption of item response theory is item parameter invariance. Sometimes, however, item parameters are not invariant across different test administrations due to factors other than sampling error; this phenomenon is termed item parameter drift. Several methods have been developed to detect drifted items. However, most of the existing methods were designed to detect drifts in individual items, which may not be adequate for test characteristic curve–based linking or equating. One example is the item response theory–based true score equating, whose goal is to generate a conversion table to relate number‐correct scores on two forms based on their test characteristic curves. This article introduces a stepwise test characteristic curve method to detect item parameter drift iteratively based on test characteristic curves without needing to set any predetermined critical values. Comparisons are made between the proposed method and two existing methods under the three‐parameter logistic item response model through simulation and real data analysis. Results show that the proposed method produces a small difference in test characteristic curves between administrations, an accurate conversion table, and a good classification of drifted and nondrifted items and at the same time keeps a large amount of linking items.  相似文献   

12.
In multiple‐choice items, differential item functioning (DIF) in the correct response may or may not be caused by differentially functioning distractors. Identifying distractors as causes of DIF can provide valuable information for potential item revision or the design of new test items. In this paper, we examine a two‐step approach based on application of a nested logit model for this purpose. The approach separates testing of differential distractor functioning (DDF) from DIF, thus allowing for clearer evaluations of where distractors may be responsible for DIF. The approach is contrasted against competing methods and evaluated in simulation and real data analyses.  相似文献   

13.
Previous assessments of the reliability of test scores for testlet-composed tests have indicated that item-based estimation methods overestimate reliability. This study was designed to address issues related to the extent to which item-based estimation methods overestimate the reliability of test scores composed of testlets and to compare several estimation methods for different measurement models using simulation techniques. Three types of estimation approach were conceptualized for generalizability theory (GT) and item response theory (IRT): item score approach (ISA), testlet score approach (TSA), and item-nested-testlet approach (INTA). The magnitudes of overestimation when applying item-based methods ranged from 0.02 to 0.06 and were related to the degrees of dependence among within-testlet items. Reliability estimates from TSA were lower than those from INTA due to the loss of information with IRT approaches. However, this could not be applied in GT. Specified methods in IRT produced higher reliability estimates than those in GT using the same approach. Relatively smaller magnitudes of error in reliability estimates were observed for ISA and for methods in IRT. Thus, it seems reasonable to use TSA as well as INTA for both GT and IRT. However, if there is a relatively large dependence among within-testlet items, INTA should be considered for IRT due to nonnegligible loss of information.  相似文献   

14.
An Angoff standard setting study generally yields judgments on a number of items by a number of judges (who may or may not be nested in panels). Variability associated with judges (and possibly panels) contributes error to the resulting cut score. The variability associated with items plays a more complicated role. To the extent that the mean item judgments directly reflect empirical item difficulties, the variability in Angoff judgments over items would not add error to the cut score, but to the extent that the mean item judgments do not correspond to the empirical item difficulties, variability in mean judgments over items would add error to the cut score. In this article, we present two generalizability-theory–based analyses of the proportion of the item variance that contributes to error in the cut score. For one approach, variance components are estimated on the probability (or proportion-correct) scale of the Angoff judgments, and for the other, the judgments are transferred to the theta scale of an item response theory model before estimating the variance components. The two analyses yield somewhat different results but both indicate that it is not appropriate to simply ignore the item variance component in estimating the error variance.  相似文献   

15.
This article considers potential problems that can arise in estimating a unidimensional item response theory (IRT) model when some test items are multidimensional (i.e., show a complex factorial structure). More specifically, this study examines (1) the consequences of model misfit on IRT item parameter estimates due to unintended minor item‐level multidimensionality, and (2) whether a Projection IRT model can provide a useful remedy. A real‐data example is used to illustrate the problem and also is used as a base model for a simulation study. The results suggest that ignoring item‐level multidimensionality might lead to inflated item discrimination parameter estimates when the proportion of multidimensional test items to unidimensional test items is as low as 1:5. The Projection IRT model appears to be a useful tool for updating unidimensional item parameter estimates of multidimensional test items for a purified unidimensional interpretation.  相似文献   

16.
Testing organization needs large numbers of high‐quality items due to the proliferation of alternative test administration methods and modern test designs. But the current demand for items far exceeds the supply. Test items, as they are currently written, evoke a process that is both time‐consuming and expensive because each item is written, edited, and reviewed by a subject‐matter expert. One promising approach that may address this challenge is with automatic item generation. Automatic item generation combines cognitive and psychometric modeling practices to guide the production of items that are generated with the aid of computer technology. The purpose of this study is to describe and illustrate a process that can be used to review and evaluate the quality of the generated item by focusing on the content and logic specified within the item generation procedure. We illustrate our process using an item development example from mathematics drawn from the Common Core State Standards and from surgical education drawn from the health sciences domain.  相似文献   

17.
In typical differential item functioning (DIF) assessments, an item's DIF status is not influenced by its status in previous test administrations. An item that has shown DIF at multiple administrations may be treated the same way as an item that has shown DIF in only the most recent administration. Therefore, much useful information about the item's functioning is ignored. In earlier work, we developed the Bayesian updating (BU) DIF procedure for dichotomous items and showed how it could be used to formally aggregate DIF results over administrations. More recently, we extended the BU method to the case of polytomously scored items. We conducted an extensive simulation study that included four “administrations” of a test. For the single‐administration case, we compared the Bayesian approach to an existing polytomous‐DIF procedure. For the multiple‐administration case, we compared BU to two non‐Bayesian methods of aggregating the polytomous‐DIF results over administrations. We concluded that both the BU approach and a simple non‐Bayesian method show promise as methods of aggregating polytomous DIF results over administrations.  相似文献   

18.
Postlethwaite, T. N. (1971). Item Scores as Feedback to Curriculum Planners. Scand. J. educ. Res. 15, 3, 123‐136. Data for Sweden from the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) mathematics study are analysed in terms of the shift in level of performance from seventh grade to ninth grade on twenty mathematics items. In turn, the level of performance for Swedish seventh and ninth graders is compared with the average level of performance for all 13‐year‐olds in the IEA study. Relative gains and losses from seventh to ninth grade are related to the Swedish Länplan. Another more general approach is used whereby each Swedish ninth grade item performance is predicted from the average 13‐year‐old performance of all countries, taking into account the Swedish lag at age 13. In this way, it can be seen if Swedish children catch up. It is assumed that such information can and will be used by curriculum planners in reforming curricula.  相似文献   

19.
Numerous studies have pointed to a gap between the attitudes people express about the natural environment and their subsequent behaviors toward that environment. Variables identified within these studies include: how significant others view behaviors related to the attitudes; demographic variables such as sex, age or education; self‐perceived ability to do the attitude‐related behavior; attitude strength; and personal relevance of the attitude. This study proposes the concept of environmental desirability responding (EDR) as another factor which might contribute to the attitude‐behavior discrepancy. The development and construct validation of the Environmentally Desirable Response Scale (EDRS), which is designed to identify the existence and level of EDR, is described. The EDRS contains items designed to measure two types of socially desirable responding – ‘Self‐deception’ and ‘Image management’. A total of 1024 usable data sets were obtained from a sample of respondents in several countries (Japan, the US and Australia). Principal factors and correlation analyses revealed that the EDRS comprises three factors identified as ‘Self‐deception/Assertion of positives’, ‘Image management’ and ‘Self‐deception/Denial of negatives’. Cronbach alpha estimates of reliability for the three factors were .74, .66, and .61. Suggestions for further research regarding the scale and EDR are offered.  相似文献   

20.
The aim of this study is to assess the efficiency of using the multiple‐group categorical confirmatory factor analysis (MCCFA) and the robust chi‐square difference test in differential item functioning (DIF) detection for polytomous items under the minimum free baseline strategy. While testing for DIF items, despite the strong assumption that all but the examined item are set to be DIF‐free, MCCFA with such a constrained baseline approach is commonly used in the literature. The present study relaxes this strong assumption and adopts the minimum free baseline approach where, aside from those parameters constrained for identification purpose, parameters of all but the examined item are allowed to differ among groups. Based on the simulation results, the robust chi‐square difference test statistic with the mean and variance adjustment is shown to be efficient in detecting DIF for polytomous items in terms of the empirical power and Type I error rates. To sum up, MCCFA under the minimum free baseline strategy is useful for DIF detection for polytomous items.  相似文献   

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