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1.
Abstract

Little research has been published as to the ways in which the commercial aspects of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association’s (FIFA) World Cups are organized. Extant literature has instead tended to focus upon infrastructure issues, economic geography, and cultural aspects. Drawing upon ‘swarm theory’ and historian Wray Vamplew’s typologies of entrepreneurial activity in sport, we compare and contrast the commercial aspects of two World Cups; first, the 1966 tournament held in England, the first time that a serious attempt had been made to produce and licence a mascot character (‘World Cup Willie’) to exploit merchandizing opportunities. This approach became an important part of World Cups thereafter; Second, the 1994 tournament in the USA, the most commercially successful World Cup ever, realizing record profits and catalyzing the re-launch of elite professional soccer in the USA. These cases enrich understanding of the networks and entrepreneurial activity of the World Cup, one of the most significant sporting and cultural mega-event projects in the world.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract

Mega sporting events such as the World Cup have been found to stimulate categorization of in-groups and out-groups among fans. While self-categorization correlates with gender, the sport of soccer also facilitates nationalistic categorization. The World Cup features nation vs. nation competition while making gender a non-variable as the men and women compete in separate tournaments in separate years. This study examined 33,529 tweets illustrating social media match commentary involving US teams and opponents on Twitter during the 2014 and 2015 World Cups. Results revealed US teams were more likely to be described in regard to attributions of success and failure, while opposition teams were more likely to receive personal and physical attributions. Conversely, no differences were found between US Men’s and Women’s teams in regard to characterizations of success and failure, but revealed the Women’s team was more likely to receive personal and physical characterizations.  相似文献   

3.
ABSTRACT

One of the most memorable moments in the World Cups history is Marco Tardelli’s second goal in Italy’s win over Germany in the 1982 World Cup finals. Better known as Tardelli’s scream, it is thus a perfect object to analyse in order to understand football’s deeper social meanings and its political and cultural undertones, in this case both for the World Cup champions, Italy, and for the host country, Spain. In the Spanish case, organizing the World Cup was a huge political opportunity for the just restored democracy to showcase to the world a modern and pluralistic society leaving behind the authoritarian and outdated dictatorship. As for Italy, their first World Cup winning since World War II was heavily politically used by actors across the political spectrum. Such nationalistic approach constituted a novelty after decades of a low profile national discourse.  相似文献   

4.
Due to their periodicity and global reach, sports mega-events play a role in the symbolic construction of an imagined community progress towards a given politic agenda. In the case of Brazil, the FIFA World Cups organized in the country, in 1950 and 2014, may serve as key occasions to the understanding of the historical development of two principles which have been central to Brazilian politics since her independency: unity and modernity; or – as in the national flag motto – order and progress. Therefore, this article sets Brazil’s (inter)national sociopolitical context in the 20th and 21st centuries first halves to, then, analyse the promotional material of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups (i.e. posters, ceremonies and so on). Such analysis is focused on the (re)creation of Brazilian identity through the games as well as the role of regional cultures in this process.  相似文献   

5.
如果说2002年韩日世界杯德国足球还被怀疑是昙花一现,那么2006年和2010年世界杯的精彩让人们不得不惊叹强大的德国足球又回来了。健康的德国足球,有一群热情忠实的球迷始终拥趸自己热爱的足球,保持了极高的比赛上座率;有一套足够健全的政策制度支持并能够坚定执行的环境,提供了良好的发展空间;有一个连贯有序的后备人才培养计划,坚实的梯队建设和广泛布局的培训学校成就了德国足球的勃勃生机,总被认为与"激情"无关的德国足球有了华丽的蜕变。  相似文献   

6.
Abstract

In the present study, we investigated the accuracy of offside judgements of assistant referees in the English Premier League. The moment in the match, the position and movement speed of the assistant referee, attacker and second-last defender, together with the angle of view for the assistant referee were all considered to underlie incorrect decisions. The error rate was 17.5% (868 of 4960 situations). As the English assistant referees tended not to signal in doubtful situations (c = 0.91), there was an overall bias towards non-flag errors (773 non-flag errors vs. 95 flag errors). The flash-lag hypothesis could explain all flag errors, whereas the optical-error hypothesis could explain a proportion of the non-flag errors (45.4%). Fatigue, movement speed, and angle of view did not have a detrimental effect on offside decision making. In conclusion, there were fewer flag errors than in the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups, whereas the number of non-flag errors rose. The increased awareness of factors involved in offside decision making and the instructions to give the benefit of the doubt to attackers could have contributed to this situation.  相似文献   

7.
Germany sent its most ethnically diverse team ever to Poland and Ukraine to compete in Euro 2012. Over the last six years, the Germany manager, Joachim Löw, has not only revitalized and rejuvenated his squad but also included a considerable number of players with foreign roots and from ethnic minorities. This ethnic and cultural diversity of the current German national side is the result of some major policy changes in the country at the turn of the millennium that made it easier for immigrants and their offspring to gain citizenship. In comparison with other European nations, it is not a reflection of a colonial history but a model of contemporary German society. This paper argues that the above-mentioned changes on the pitch are also reflected off it. Both the 2006 and 2010 Soccer World Cups and Euro 2012 turned into widespread and colourful celebrations of a new, modern sense of Germanness underpinned by a non-threatening and playful patriotism. The creativity, diversity, youth, style and flair of both the German team and its supporters presented the country as a confident and more embracing place than ever before.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract

The Lebanese Rugby League was formed in 1997 in Sydney when a team comprised of Australian-based players of Lebanese descent participated in an international tournament. The Lebanese national team later qualified for two rugby league men’s World Cups (2000 and 2017). The case demonstrates how diasporas can shape sport development. The accomplishment of the Lebanese team has also given the small country some exposure at the global level. Additionally, since 2002, a new sport has been established in Lebanon, making the country one of the few cases in the world where rugby league is more popular than rugby union. This paper examines diaspora issues including the assimilation of Lebanese emigrants into Australian sporting culture and strategic uses of citizenship. Furthermore, the research sheds light on the ‘glocalized’ development of rugby league in Lebanon by its establishment at private Lebanese universities while it is known in Australia for its working-class origins. There is a relationship of mutual dependence between diaspora and homeland: without its diaspora, Lebanon could not participate in the World Cup, and without domestic development in the sport (which includes, since 2015, also women’s teams), the diaspora would not be permitted to participate in global championships.  相似文献   

9.
Scholars of Argentine fútbol have explored the construction of fútbol criollo and how this style of play has factored into the broader debate over national identity in Argentina. Focusing on the performance of the key Argentine personalities at the FIFA World Cup from 1958 to 1990, this essay explores how fútbol represented a contested vision of the nation across five decades. After a 24-year absence at the FIFA World Cup, and in the wake of the overthrow of President Juan Perón, Argentina underachieved at the 1958 tournament. The country would later experience a number of disappointments en route to eventually winning the 1978 and 1986 World Cups. However, across this time span (and beyond) the team’s style of play and identity became the subject of intense debate. Popular discourse revealed a preference between two approaches seemingly in juxtaposition to each other. On the one hand, traditionalists favoured the criollo style, which celebrated the pibe (the young kid from the streets) and the potrero (the dusty fields where fútbol is practised) as emblematic of the nation. These symbols represented the working class and elevated the life of the barrio as an anchor to the nation’s humble beginnings. On the other hand, reformers preferred approaches that proved successful in Europe. Sometimes described by critics as anti-fútbol, the emphasis was on physicality, strict adherence to tactics and data-driven training. Proponents in Argentina equated this European approach to progress and modernity. Between 1958 and 1990, notable Argentine personalities at the FIFA World Cup embodied both of these philosophies.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract

In this study, we evaluated the extent to which 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times predicted final rankings at the World Rowing Championships in a sample of 638 rowers of both sexes and body-mass classifications (i.e. open-category and lightweight rowers). Rowing ergometer performance times were examined using a questionnaire, and in 17 of 23 events they were positively correlated (P ≤ 0.049) with the final rankings at the Championships. The highest correlations were for the ergometer performance times achieved by rowers in lightweight men's single sculls (r = 0.78; P = 0.005), women's single sculls (r = 0.75; P = 0.002), men's single sculls (r = 0.72; P = 0.004), and lightweight men's double sculls (r = 0.72; P < 0.001). We used linear regression to establish regression equations to predict final rankings based on 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times for each event in which there was a correlation greater than r = 0.50. Although correlations in 12 events met this criterion, the large standard errors of the estimate hindered ranking predictions in all of the studied events. Regression equations could be used to determine the most probable 2000-m ergometer performance time for a rower to achieve specific rankings at the World Rowing Championships.  相似文献   

11.
This paper reviews the FIFA World Cups 1998–2010 with data available from the FIFA website and assesses the performance of each region in relation to the number of World Cup qualifications spots that the region is awarded. We raise the issue of whether FIFA should be more concerned with the participation of more members from its federations in the World Cup than the financial gain from doing so. Our non-econometric analysis illustrates that the current allocation may be resulting in the awarding of qualification spots to teams that if not unfair, certainly warrants discussion. We seek to demonstrate that the current system of qualification is based neither on ensuring the qualification of the best 32 teams in the world, nor does it fairly allocate qualification spots on the number of teams per federation or any other metric. We conclude with a plea for more transparent allocation processes.  相似文献   

12.
Abstract

The birth date distributions of elite male and female footballers in Australia, from junior youth (age 14 and upwards) to senior (professional) players, were examined. A statistically significant relative age effect was found among junior male players, reducing in effect with increasing age. An inter-year relative age effect that became apparent among the players at national level in the Under-17 and Under-20 age groups, due to the timing of the respective World Cups for those age groups, was also identified. It is conjectured that this might lead to players born in certain years having a curtailed pathway in the elite game, leading to drop-out among this very elite group. In the case of women elite players, no significant relative age effect was found among youth players, possibly due to less fierce competition for places, although a significant effect was found to exist at senior elite level.  相似文献   

13.
ABSTRACT

This essay follows up on an article published in Soccer & Society prior to the 2018 World Cup in Russia. There it was argued that this edition of the World Cup served as particularly interesting for the academic field focussed on sport-mega events (SMEs) and ‘security’, because of its uniquely securitized climate. Written immediately after the 2018 World Cup, the present essay reflects upon the event’s ‘security’ and mega-event security more broadly. It revisits some ‘security-related’ episodes. Then, special attention will be given the media discourse vis-à-vis ‘hooliganism’. The essay argues that the media discourse took an unorthodox ‘turn’ with regard to English ‘hooligans’, who, compared to past events, were portrayed as being ‘in risk’ – rather than being the group generating ‘the risk’ of football-related violence and public disorder.  相似文献   

14.
采用文献资料法、观察统计法、对比分析法，对2006年与2002年世界杯足球赛决赛阶段运动员犯规情况进行统计分析。结果表明：2006届世界杯足球赛运动员在犯规、越位、红、黄牌方面都比2002年世界杯多；运动员的主要犯规动作类型按顺序从过去的踢人、拉扯、冲撞、铲人、推人、绊摔变为铲人、推人、冲撞、绊摔、拉扯、踢人；犯规、越位的最高峰期分别从过去的30-45min、16～30min到0～15min、76～90min的时段转变；出示红牌比例最多的区域从过去的后场转变到中场；规则的修改减少了运动员在场上的严重犯规和暴力行为。  相似文献   

15.
Abstract

We examined the association between celebratory responses after successful soccer penalty kicks and the outcome of a penalty shootout. Individually displayed post-shot behaviours in penalty shootouts held in World Cups and European Championships (N = 151) were rated on the presence of universally distinct and recognizable behaviours associated with positive emotions. Using chi-square analyses we investigated which behaviours were associated with winning the shootout, when the relative standing between the teams was equal. Players who engaged in certain celebratory post-shot behaviours were more likely to be in the team that ultimately won the penalty shootout. In particular, celebrations including both arms were associated with winning the shootout. It was more likely that the next kick taken by an opponent was missed after a player displayed these behaviours after a goal than when he did not. The findings are interpreted in terms of emotional contagion – that is, the transference of emotions from individuals onto teammates and opponents. It is suggested that the individual expression of post-performance emotions serves a direct purpose in enhancing future team performance and that emotional contagion is an important process in the context of elite sport performance.  相似文献   

16.
自1995年国际体操联合会开始举办首届世界健美操锦标赛至今,我国几乎参加了全部该项赛事,混合双人的最好成绩已从1999年世锦赛的第18名上升至2006年的第5名,我国混双项目已经呈现出较强的上升趋势。以三个周期FIG的规则变化及2002-2010年五届世界锦标赛混双项目决赛前三名及我国选手成套动作为研究对象,探求影响我国混合双人项目成绩的主要因素,为提高我国混合双人项目的竞技水平,在世界大赛中取得更大的突破提供理论参考依据,并对当前竞技健美操混双项目的发展趋势进行了初步探讨,探寻国际竞技健美操混双项目难度动作的选择与均衡性发展,为竞技健美操的教学与训练提供参考。  相似文献   

17.
刘毅 《福建体育科技》2011,30(1):23-24,27
对代表2010年世界男子篮球锦标赛前16名球队进攻能力的6项技术指标进行统计与评价,运用Q型聚类、等级相关分析法、单因紊方差分析和多重比较等统计学方法片所得数据进行分析和检验.结果表明:运用Q型聚类等方法对2010年世界男子篮球锦标赛前16名球队进攻能力指标进行童化评价具有较高的可靠性,能够客观反映各队的进攻能力;聚类...  相似文献   

18.
ABSTRACT

Regular air travel is common in sport. The aim of this study was to understand the extent to which travel has affected Super Rugby teams’ performance from 2006, the first season with available Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), to 2016. Data were analysed with mixed linear models for the effects of number of time-zones crossed (east or west), travel duration, the away-match disadvantage, difference in ranking, a set of amendments to the laws of Rugby Union in 2008, a change in competition format (introduction of a conference system) in 2011, and a secular trend. In 2006, the predicted combined effects of travelling 24 h across 12 time-zones and playing away were trivial or small and negative but generally unclear for most of the KPIs in both directions of travel. In 2016 more effects were clear, small and negative for westward travel, while most effects for eastward travel were clear, small to moderate and negative. Most KPIs showed small to moderate increases over the 11 years, while difference in ranking, the introduction of new rules and game format led to mostly small changes. Changes in the physical demands of the game, and inadequate recovery time for long-haul travel can explain these effects.  相似文献   

19.
In the present study, we tested the consequences of attention towards goalkeepers in association football penalty shootouts that have exclusively been derived from laboratory experiments. We conducted a retrospective analysis of all penalty shootouts during FIFA World Cups (1986–2010) and UEFA European Football Championships (1984–2012). We linked key variables of previous laboratory research to observable behaviour in the field that was coded by two independent coders. The following hypotheses were tested: first, attention towards goalkeepers results in more saves/better goalkeeper performance; second, goalkeepers can deliberately distract penalty takers by drawing attention towards themselves which results in less accurate penalty kicks/better goalkeeper performance. Results were in line with previous laboratory analyses as they showed that attention towards goalkeepers resulted in more saves/better goalkeeping performance. Further, if goalkeepers distracted penalty takers this also resulted in better goalkeeping performance. The applied implications of these findings are discussed for both goalkeepers and penalty takers in association football.  相似文献   

20.
排球比赛中球队得分结构对其成绩排名有重要意义和作用。综合运用资料调研、数据统计、相关性分析等方法对世界女排强队比赛(以2009年、2010年世界女排大奖赛决赛为例)得分结构与球队成绩排名的相关性进行分析研究。通过计算皮尔森相关系数表明:球队比赛排名与球队拦网得分、拦网平均每局效率显著相关且正相关,与扣球平均每局成功率相关性较大,与发球及发球平均每局得分相关性并不显著。对于此规律的认识对排球训练有重要参考意义。  相似文献   

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