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On winning the penalty shoot-out in soccer 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
The penalty shoot-out is used to break tied games in the knock-out stages of soccer competition. The shoot-out, which consists of an alternating series of penalty kicks, is won by the team with the highest goal tally after n kicks per team (n = 5). In the event of a tie after five penalty kicks each, the shoot-out progresses to 'sudden death' by increasing n in iterative fashion (i.e. n = n + 1) until one team obtains a higher goal tally than the other after an equal number of kicks per team. The team to strike first is determined at the end of extra time by the toss of a coin. As each on-field player can be awarded only a single penalty kick, the line-up order in which the penalty kicks are taken allows for the possibility of tactical influence on the final outcome. Consequently, we report a probability analysis of the penalty shoot-out in soccer from which we identify the following pre- and post-game strategies. The best five ranked penalty takers from the on-field players should be assigned to the first five penalty kicks in their reverse order of ability. That is, the fifth best penalty taker should take the first penalty kick, the fourth best penalty taker should take the second penalty kick, and so on. In the event of sudden death, the next highest ranked on-field player should be assigned to the next penalty kick until the shoot-out ends. For this tactic to be successful, players should be ranked a priori on their penalty-taking ability. Similarly, goalkeepers should be ranked a priori on their penalty-stopping ability. These findings indicate that the tactical substitution of on-field players for higher ranked penalty takers, including higher ranked penalty stoppers (i.e. goalkeepers), with a view to an impending penalty shoot-out should be given due consideration. These results are of practical importance in that they are shown to maximize the likelihood of winning the penalty shoot-out under certain initial conditions. 相似文献
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The penalty shoot-out is used to break tied games in the knock-out stages of soccer competition. The shoot-out, which consists of an alternating series of penalty kicks, is won by the team with the highest goal tally after n kicks per team (n = 5). In the event of a tie after five penalty kicks each, the shoot-out progresses to 'sudden death' by increasing n in iterative fashion (i.e. n = n + 1) until one team obtains a higher goal tally than the other after an equal number of kicks per team. The team to strike first is determined at the end of extra time by the toss of a coin. As each on-field player can be awarded only a single penalty kick, the line-up order in which the penalty kicks are taken allows for the possibility of tactical influence on the final outcome. Consequently, we report a probability analysis of the penalty shoot-out in soccer from which we identify the following pre- and post-game strategies. The best five ranked penalty takers from the on-field players should be assigned to the first five penalty kicks in their reverse order of ability. That is, the fifth best penalty taker should take the first penalty kick, the fourth best penalty taker should take the second penalty kick, and so on. In the event of sudden death, the next highest ranked on-field player should be assigned to the next penalty kick until the shoot-out ends. For this tactic to be successful, players should be ranked a priori on their penalty-taking ability. Similarly, goalkeepers should be ranked a priori on their penalty-stopping ability. These findings indicate that the tactical substitution of on-field players for higher ranked penalty takers, including higher ranked penalty stoppers (i.e. goalkeepers), with a view to an impending penalty shoot-out should be given due consideration. These results are of practical importance in that they are shown to maximize the likelihood of winning the penalty shoot-out under certain initial conditions. 相似文献
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《International review of sport and exercise psychology》2013,6(1):209-229
In soccer, penalty kicks can decide the outcome of a match and in recent years, much effort has been invested in trying to identify the factors that influence successful performance. This overview presents some of the most important findings in order to compile a reliable set of facts that can improve the probability of success for either penalty takers or goalkeepers. Particular attention is paid to various strategic aspects in the shooter–goalkeeper interaction as previous research suggests that the chances of success on both sides may be greatly enhanced by applying findings from research in sport psychology. The article ends with a checklist that goalkeepers and penalty takers may use to improve their chances of success alongside recommendations to continue and intensify the efforts to carry out ecologically valid experiments in future research. 相似文献
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In the present study, we tested the consequences of attention towards goalkeepers in association football penalty shootouts that have exclusively been derived from laboratory experiments. We conducted a retrospective analysis of all penalty shootouts during FIFA World Cups (1986–2010) and UEFA European Football Championships (1984–2012). We linked key variables of previous laboratory research to observable behaviour in the field that was coded by two independent coders. The following hypotheses were tested: first, attention towards goalkeepers results in more saves/better goalkeeper performance; second, goalkeepers can deliberately distract penalty takers by drawing attention towards themselves which results in less accurate penalty kicks/better goalkeeper performance. Results were in line with previous laboratory analyses as they showed that attention towards goalkeepers resulted in more saves/better goalkeeping performance. Further, if goalkeepers distracted penalty takers this also resulted in better goalkeeping performance. The applied implications of these findings are discussed for both goalkeepers and penalty takers in association football. 相似文献
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点球是现代足球竞赛中的重要技术,对比赛结果具有显著的影响。点球心理研究是足球心理研究中的热点议题。该文从队服颜色效应、罚球员与守门员的非言语行为、罚球员射门策略以及预测罚球员射门区域的先行线索等四个方面对国外足球点球心理研究现状进行了系统回顾与总结,认为每个影响守门员或罚球员的因素均可应用于守门员或罚球员的指导与训练。在对国外研究现状分析的基础上提出了未来的研究方向提高研究的生态学效度与加强质性研究,重视心理干预研究以提升球员的抗压能力。 相似文献
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Expectancy effects in tennis: the impact of opponents' pre-match non-verbal behaviour on male tennis players 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Buscombe R Greenlees I Holder T Thelwell R Rimmer M 《Journal of sports sciences》2006,24(12):1265-1272
In this study, we examined the impact of a male opponent's pre-match body language and clothing (general vs. sports-specific) on how his performances were judged by an observer. Forty male tennis players viewed videos of a male target tennis player warming up and then observed playing footage of the target. Each participant viewed the target player warming up displaying one of four combinations of body language and clothing (positive body language/tennis-specific clothing; positive body language/general sportswear; negative body language/tennis-specific clothing; negative body language/general sportswear). Participants rated the performance of the tennis player and gave their perceptions of the likely outcome of a tennis match with the target player. Analyses of variance indicated that clothing and body language had an interactive effect on both outcome expectations and ratings of performance. The findings support the contention that the initial impressions athletes form of their opponents can influence the way in which they judge the performances of opponents and their perceived likelihood of success against the same opponents. 相似文献
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The goalkeeper’s difficulty in the soccer penalty kick originates from the extreme spatiotemporal constraints of the situation. The present review claims that the current understanding is biased toward attributing a goalkeeper’s success in saving a penalty kick to perceptual–cognitive skill. To investigate the goalkeeper’s skill, researchers have often adopted video tasks. In doing so, they studied perceptual skill in isolation from action. We use affordance-based control theory to propose an alternative understanding and research methodology. We argue that goalkeepers in the penalty kick situation should regulate their actions in ways that sustain the perception of stoppability. To capture this, we outline the building blocks for a required lateral velocity model, in which the goalkeepers’ required actions are scaled to their maximum capabilities. In doing so, we provide new directions for research. 相似文献
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Richard Buscombe Tim Holder Richard Thelwell Matt Rimmer 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(12):1265-1272
Abstract In this study, we examined the impact of a male opponent's pre-match body language and clothing (general vs. sports-specific) on how his performances were judged by an observer. Forty male tennis players viewed videos of a male target tennis player warming up and then observed playing footage of the target. Each participant viewed the target player warming up displaying one of four combinations of body language and clothing (positive body language/tennis-specific clothing; positive body language/general sportswear; negative body language/tennis-specific clothing; negative body language/general sportswear). Participants rated the performance of the tennis player and gave their perceptions of the likely outcome of a tennis match with the target player. Analyses of variance indicated that clothing and body language had an interactive effect on both outcome expectations and ratings of performance. The findings support the contention that the initial impressions athletes form of their opponents can influence the way in which they judge the performances of opponents and their perceived likelihood of success against the same opponents. 相似文献
10.
Time-motion, heart rate, perceptual and motor behaviour demands in small-sides soccer games: effects of pitch size 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
The aim of this study was to examine physical, physiological, and motor responses and perceived exertion during different soccer drills. In small-sided games, the individual playing area (～ 275 m2, ～ 175 m2, and ～ 75 m2) was varied while the number of players per team was kept constant: 5 vs. 5 plus goalkeepers. Participants were ten male youth soccer players. Each session comprised three small-sided game formats, which lasted 8 min each with a 5-min passive rest period between them. A range of variables was recorded and analysed for the three drills performed over three training sessions: (a) physiological, measured using Polar Team devices; (b) physical, using GPS SPI elite devices; (c) perceived exertion, rated using the CR-10 scale; and (d) motor response, evaluated using an observational tool that was specially designed for this study. Significant differences were observed for most of the variables studied. When the individual playing area was larger, the effective playing time, the physical (total distance covered; distances covered in low-intensity running, medium-intensity running, and high-intensity running; distance covered per minute; maximum speed; work-to-rest ratio; sprint frequency) and physiological workload (percent maximum heart rate; percent mean heart rate; time spent above 90% maximum heart rate), and the rating of perceived exertion were all higher, while certain motor behaviours were observed less frequently (interception, control and dribble, control and shoot, clearance, and putting the ball in play). The results show that the size of the pitch should be taken into account when planning training drills, as it influences the intensity of the task and the motor response of players. 相似文献
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The outcome of penalty shoot-outs is often referred to as a “lottery”, suggesting that luck, rather than the skill level of the player, predetermines outcome success. Throughout this article, we hope to show why such attitudes towards physical and psychological preparation can increase anxiety, diminish perceptions of control and negatively affect the behaviour and subsequent performance of penalty takers. From the synthesis of this evidence, we provide task-specific recommendations that are structured around the dynamic nature of emotions that players are likely to experience during each phase of the shoot-out and which can be implemented or adapted to suit the individual needs of the player. These recommendations are designed to provide a framework to help applied professionals to optimise the psychological preparation for this scenario with the overall aim of helping players to (re)gain control of this situation. 相似文献
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David Casamichana 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(14):1615-1623
Abstract The aim of this study was to examine physical, physiological, and motor responses and perceived exertion during different soccer drills. In small-sided games, the individual playing area (～275 m2, ～175 m2, and ～75 m2) was varied while the number of players per team was kept constant: 5 vs. 5 plus goalkeepers. Participants were ten male youth soccer players. Each session comprised three small-sided game formats, which lasted 8 min each with a 5-min passive rest period between them. A range of variables was recorded and analysed for the three drills performed over three training sessions: (a) physiological, measured using Polar Team devices; (b) physical, using GPS SPI elite devices; (c) perceived exertion, rated using the CR-10 scale; and (d) motor response, evaluated using an observational tool that was specially designed for this study. Significant differences were observed for most of the variables studied. When the individual playing area was larger, the effective playing time, the physical (total distance covered; distances covered in low-intensity running, medium-intensity running, and high-intensity running; distance covered per minute; maximum speed; work-to-rest ratio; sprint frequency) and physiological workload (percent maximum heart rate; percent mean heart rate; time spent above 90% maximum heart rate), and the rating of perceived exertion were all higher, while certain motor behaviours were observed less frequently (interception, control and dribble, control and shoot, clearance, and putting the ball in play). The results show that the size of the pitch should be taken into account when planning training drills, as it influences the intensity of the task and the motor response of players. 相似文献
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Abstract Body composition is a key consideration in the physical make-up of professional soccer players. The aims of the present study were to determine whether the body composition of professional soccer players varied according to playing position, international status or ethnicity, and to establish which variables best distinguished the soccer players from a reference group. Body composition was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in 64 male professional soccer players. Measured variables included bone mineral density and the relative amounts of lean and fat mass. Data were analysed using analysis of variance and stepwise discriminant function. The soccer players recorded better values than a reference group (n = 24) for all body composition compartments. Percent lean mass and bone mineral density were the variables best able to identify the soccer players (95.5% correctly classified). Differences in body composition were evident between goalkeepers and outfield players, but not between outfield playing positions. No differences were found on the basis of international status. The non-Caucasian players demonstrated significantly lower percent body fat (9.2 ± 2.0%) than the Caucasian players (10.7 ± 1.8%). It was concluded that body composition is important for elite soccer players, but that homogeneity between players at top professional clubs results in little variation between individuals. 相似文献
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Abstract Previous research has shown that young male soccer players who are born early in a cohort are overrepresented on elite soccer teams. Selection advantages such as this have been termed ‘relative age effects’ (RAEs). Few studies have examined RAEs in elite women's youth soccer. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of RAEs in the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) U-17 Women's World Cup competition and their link to playing positions. In the entire cohort of 672 players, we found significant RAEs in the geographical zones of Europe and North and Central America, no RAEs in the zones of Asia, Oceania, and South America, and significant inverse RAEs in the zone of Africa. Additionally, significant RAEs were found for goalkeepers and defenders from Europe and North and Central America. Inverse RAEs occurred for African goalkeepers, defenders, and strikers. Goalkeepers of all zones were significantly taller than players of all other playing positions. The results of this study show that remarkable RAEs do exist at elite women's youth soccer. Similar to men's soccer, there is a bias toward the inclusion of relatively older players, and a link between RAEs and playing positions. 相似文献
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The effects of three different colour patterns on the surface of volleyballs (versus that of a plain white ball) on the behaviour of a reception player were examined by presenting sidespin volleyball serves. Expert (n = 10) and novice (n = 10) volleyball players intercepted volleyballs projected straight at them or at an initial angle of 9.5 degrees outwards but eventually curving towards the players' original position. In the latter trajectories, players generally took one or more steps laterally before returning to the landing position of the ball. These excursion patterns were significantly more pronounced with the white balls than the coloured balls. Differences between balls of different colour combinations were also observed. The first finding supports the thesis that next to a prospective type of control, such as on-line maintenance of a certain spatiotemporal relationship between the player and the ball, properties of the ball itself allow prediction of the future path of the ball. Differences between types of colour patterns are explained within the framework of the between-colours wavelength contrasts of each type of ball. 相似文献
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Visual search, anticipation and expertise in soccer goalkeepers 总被引：3，自引：3，他引：0
We used a novel methodological approach to examine skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search behaviour during the penalty kick in soccer. Expert and novice goalkeepers were required to move a joystick in response to penalty kicks presented on film. The proportion of penalties saved was assessed, as well as the frequency and time of initiation of joystick corrections. Visual search behaviour was examined using an eye movement registration system. Expert goalkeepers were generally more accurate in predicting the direction of the penalty kick, waited longer before initiating a response and made fewer corrective movements with the joystick. The expert goalkeepers used a more efficient search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration to less disparate areas of the display. The novices spent longer fixating on the trunk, arms and hips, whereas the experts found the kicking leg, non-kicking leg and ball areas to be more informative, particularly as the moment of foot-ball contact approached. No differences in visual search behaviour were observed between successful and unsuccessful penalties. The results have implications for improving anticipation skill at penalty kicks. 相似文献
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Geert J.P. Savelsbergh A. Mark Williams John Van Der Kamp Paul Ward 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(3):279-287
We used a novel methodological approach to examine skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search behaviour during the penalty kick in soccer. Expert and novice goalkeepers were required to move a joystick in response to penalty kicks presented on film. The proportion of penalties saved was assessed, as well as the frequency and time of initiation of joystick corrections. Visual search behaviour was examined using an eye movement registration system. Expert goalkeepers were generally more accurate in predicting the direction of the penalty kick, waited longer before initiating a response and made fewer corrective movements with the joystick. The expert goalkeepers used a more efficient search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration to less disparate areas of the display. The novices spent longer fixating on the trunk, arms and hips, whereas the experts found the kicking leg, non-kicking leg and ball areas to be more informative, particularly as the moment of foot-ball contact approached. No differences in visual search behaviour were observed between successful and unsuccessful penalties. The results have implications for improving anticipation skill at penalty kicks. 相似文献
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Matthieu Lenoir Joost Vansteenkiste Jelle Vermeulen Dirk de Clercq 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(8):871-879
The effects of three different colour patterns on the surface of volleyballs (versus that of a plain white ball) on the behaviour of a reception player were examined by presenting sidespin volleyball serves. Expert (n = 10) and novice (n = 10) volleyball players intercepted volleyballs projected straight at them or at an initial angle of 9.5° outwards but eventually curving towards the players' original position. In the latter trajectories, players generally took one or more steps laterally before returning to the landing position of the ball. These excursion patterns were significantly more pronounced with the white balls than the coloured balls. Differences between balls of different colour combinations were also observed. The first finding supports the thesis that next to a prospective type of control, such as on-line maintenance of a certain spatiotemporal relationship between the player and the ball, properties of the ball itself allow prediction of the future path of the ball. Differences between types of colour patterns are explained within the framework of the between-colours wavelength contrasts of each type of ball. 相似文献
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The colour of sportswear has been shown to influence the outcome of bouts for several different combat sports. The generality of these effects, and whether they extend to collaborative forms of contests (team sports), is uncertain. Since 1947, English football teams wearing red shirts have been champions more often than expected on the basis of the proportion of clubs playing in red. To investigate whether this indicates an enhancement of long-term performance in red-wearing teams, we analysed the relative league positions of teams wearing different hues. Across all league divisions, red teams had the best home record, with significant differences in both percentage of maximum points achieved and mean position in the home league table. The effects were not due simply to a difference between teams playing in a colour and those playing in a predominantly white uniform, as the latter performed better than teams in yellow hues. No significant differences were found for performance in matches away from home, when teams commonly do not wear their "home" colours. A matched-pairs analysis of red and non-red wearing teams in eight English cities shows significantly better performance of red teams over a 55-year period. These effects on long-term success have consequences for colour selection in team sports, confirm that wearing red enhances performance in a variety of competitive contexts, and provide further impetus for studies of the mechanisms underlying these effects. 相似文献